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MANUAL  OF 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC: 


^-1^^^^  f*^  mliocll  m&  m\\^t§. 


• »-    »   »•  "   ».* 


JOHN  S.   HART,   LL.D., 

PROFESSOR   OF   RHETORIC   AND   OF  THE   ENGLISH    LANGUAGE   AND   LITERATURE 
IN   THE   COLLEGE  OF   NEW  JERSEY. 


PHII.ADELPHIA: 
ELDREDGE  &  BROTHER, 

No.  17  North  Seventh  Street. 

1874. 


A  SERIES    OF   TEXT-BOOKS 

ON  THE 

ENGLISH  LANGUAGE, 

BY 

JOHN   S.    HART,    LL.D. 

Pirst  Lessons  in  Composition. 
Composition  and  Khetoric. 
A  Short  Course  in  Literature. 

And  for  Colleges  and  Higher  Institutions  of  Learning  : 

A  Manual  of  English  Literature. 
A  Manual  of  American  Literature, 


>  Entered,  a9coi;0i.pg  Jo  4ct  0/ Qtjug^ess.jn  the  y&ar  1870,  hy  ^ 

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/'/^  i  jV'RrE>  j}*El  :&'  JB  jl  0  T  Hi  R,  ^  / 
in  the  OflSce  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress  at  Washington. 


:5*' 


-^ 


EDUCATION  DEPT. 

i,  philad'a.  ^^^P^ 


9AXT0K  PRI88  OF  SHERMAN  4  CO. 


Preface. 


THIS  is,  on  the  face  of  it,  a  text-book.  It  has  been  writ- 
ten for  learners,  not  for  the  learned.  Its  object  is,  not 
to  extend  the  boundaries  of  the  science  by  excursions  into 
debatable  ground,  but  to  present  its  admitted  truths  in  a 
form  easily  apprehended.  By  this  statement,  however,  I  do 
not  wish  to  convey  the  idea  that  the  treatise  is  unscientific 
in  its  character  or  its  methods.  I  mean  merely  that  I  have 
studioiftsly  avoided  cumbering  my  book  with  the  many 
abstruse  and  still  unsolved  questions  which  environ  the  sub- 
ject. Those  questions  are  not  without  interest  or  value,  and 
few  persons  have  a  keener  relish  for  their  discussion  than 
the  writer,  whose  life-long  studies  have  been  in  that  precise 
line  of  inquiry.  But  original  investigation  is  felt  to  be  out 
of  place  in  a  text-book  for  instruction  in  the  elements.  At 
the  same  time,  it  is  believed,  the  attentive  reader,  who  is 
familiar  with  the  recent  literature  of  the  science,  will  find 
the  subject  brought  up  to  the  latest  clearly  ascertained 
results,  while  in  some  directions  a  decided  advance  has  been 
made.  ^699025 


IV  PREFACE. 

The  text  has  been,  purposely,  and  most  carefully,  broken 
up  into  portions  convenient  for  the  uses  of  the  class-room. 
These  typographical  arrangements  necessarily  give  to  the 
pages  a  somewhat  fragmentary  appearance.  But  any  one 
who  will  take  the  trouble  to  look  will  see  at  a  glance  that 
the  matter  throughout  is  closely  connected  and  continuous, 
—  that  it  forms  a  compacted  and  orderly  system. 

Rhetoric,  like  grammar,  arithmetic,  and  many  kindred 
subjects  of  study,  is  an  art  as  well  as  a  science,  and  no  text- 
book for  the  class-room  is  of  much  value  which  is  not  well 
furnished  with  examples  for  practice.  In  the  preparation 
of  the  present  work,  no  labor  has  been  spared  in  this  re- 
spect. In  the  apparatus  required  by  the  teacher  for  train- 
ing students  in  the  practical  applications  of  the  principles 
of  Rhetoric,  the  book,  it  is  believed,  may  safely  challenge 
comparison  with  any  work  on  the  subject  that  is  before  the 
public.  J.  S.  H. 

State  Normal  School,  "> 

Trenton,  N.  J.,  July,  1870.    j 


CONTENTS  I 


INTRODUCTION. 


PAQB 

General  Terms  Defined,    .  .  .  .  .  .  ,        .  •  .13 

Limitations  of  the  Subject,     ........         14 

General  Divisions,  .........    11 


Part  L 


STYLE. 

Definition  of  Style,  ..,...,..    15 

Division  of  the  Subject,           ........  16 

CHAPTER  I. 
Punctuation  and  Capitals. 

Definition  and  History  of  the  Subject,  .  ......    17 

Division  of  the  Subject,         .            .......  18 

SECTION  I.— The  Comma. 

Rule  1.  Parenthetical  Expressions,        .           .           .           .           .           .  .20 

Rule  2.  Intermediate  Expressions,    .......  22 

Rule  3.  Dependent  Clauses,          .           .           .           .           .           .           .  .23 

Rule  i.  Relative  Clauses,        ........  24 

Rule  5.  Co-ordinate  Clauses,        .           .           .           .           .           .           .  .28 

Rule  6.  Grammatical  Expressions  in  the  Same  Construction,      ...  26 

Rule  7.  Words  in  the  Same  Construction        .           .           .           .           .  .27 

1*  V 


Vi  CONTENTS, 


PAOl 


Riile  8.  Words  or  Phrases  in  Pairs,  .......  28 

Rule  9.  Nouns  in  Apposition,                  .           .           .           .           .           .  .29 

Rule  10.  The  Vocative  Case,               .......  30 

Rule  11.  The  Case  Absolute,                   .            .            .            .            .            .  .30 

Rule  12.  Inverted  Expressions,         .            .            .            .            .            .       *     ,  30 

Rule  13.  Ellipsis  of  the  Verb,  31 

Rule  14.  Short  Quotations,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .31 

Rule  15.  Punctuation  of  Numerals,                   .           .           .           .           .  .32 

SECTION  II.— The  Semicolon. 

Rule  1.  Subdivided  Members  in  Compound  Sentences,          ,           .           .  .32 

Rule  2.  Clauses  and  Expressions  having  a  Common  Dependence,          .            .  33 

Rule  3.  Sentences  Connected  in  Meaning,  but  not  Grammatically,              .  .    34 

Rule  4.  The  Clause  Additional,         .......  35 

Rule  5.  A  Genei-al  Term  in  Apposition  to  the  Particulars  under  it,             .  .35 

SECTION  III.— The  Colon. 

Rule  1.  Greater  Divisions  of  Complex  Sentences,        .            .            .            .  .36 

Rule  2.  Before  a  Quotation,    ........  36 

Rule  3.  Yes  and  No,           .            .            .            .            .            .           .            .  .    37 

Rule  4.   Title-Pages,     .........  37 

SECTION  IV.— The  Period. 

Rule  1.  Complete  Sentences,        .            .            .            .           .            .            .  .89 

Rule  2.  After  Titles,  etc. 39 

Rule  3,  After  Abbreviations,        ........    40 

SECTION  v.  — The  Interrogation. 

Rule  L  The  Direct  Question,       .           .           .           .           .           .           .  .43 

SECTION  VI.  — The  Exclamation. 

Rule  1.  After  Strong  Emotion,    ........    44 

Rule  2,  After  an  Interjection,            .......  44 

Rule  3.  Double  Exclamations,    .           .           .           .           .           .           .  .45 

SECTION  VII.— The  Dash. 

Rule  1.  ConBtniction  Changed,   .           .                      .           .           .           .  .46 

Rule  2.  Change  in  Sentiment,          .......  46 

Rule  3.  Emphatic  Generalisation,          .           .           .           .           .           .  .46 

Rule  4.  Elocutionary  Pause,        ........  47 

Rule  5.  Expressions  Dependent  upon  Concluding  Clause,      .           .           .  .47 

Rule  6.  Rhetorical  Repetition,           .......  47 

Rule  7.  Reflex  Apposition  ........    47 

Bale  8.  The  Dash  Parenthetical,                   ......  48 

Bole  9.  Titles  Run  in,       .                                                                               .  .49 

Bale  10.  Question  and  Answer,         .......  49 

Bale  11.  Omissions,  .........    id 

Eule  12.  Examples  oo  a  New  Line,                         .          .           ...  49 


CONTENTS.  Vll 
SECTION  VIII.— The  Parenthesis. 

PAGK 

Eule, .51 

SECTION  IX.  —  Brackets. 

Rule 52 

SECTION  X.  —  Quotations. 

Rule  1.  Words  Taken  from  Another  Author,               .           .           .           .  .54 

Rule  2.  Quotation  Within  a  Quotation,       ......  55 

Rule  3.  Consecutive  Paragraphs,           .           .           .           .           .           .  .56 

SECTION  XI.  — Apostrophe,  Hyphen,  &g. 

Apostrophe,  Hyphen,  Caret,  Index,  etc.,            ....  .57 

Captions,  Side-heads,  Kinds  of  Type,  etc.,    ......  58 


SECTION  XII.  — Capitals 

Rule  1.  Title-pages,  and  Headings,         .  .  .  . 

Rule  2.  First  Words      ...... 

Rules  3-10.  Numbered  Clauses,  etc.,        .... 

Rules  11-14.  Names  of  God,  etc.,        .... 

Rules  15-18.  Proper  Names,  etc.,  .... 

Rules  19-20.  Speaial  Importance,  Personification, 


59 


CHAPTER  II. 
Diction. 

Definition  —  How  to  Obtain  Command  of  Words,         .           .           ,           .  .67 

Division  of  the  Subject,           ........  68 

SECTION  I.  — Purity. 

1.  Foreign  Words,              . .    68 

2.  Obsolete  Words,  and  New  Words,              ......  69 

3.  Words  without  Proper  Authority,     .           .           ,           .           .           .  .71 
Use  the  Law  of  Language,      ........  72 

SECTION  II.  — Propriety. 

Difference  between  Propriety  of  Diction  and  Purity,              .           .           .  .74 

Means  of  Attaining  Propriety,            .......  75 

Examples  of  Words  Used  Improperly,  .           .           .           .           .           .  .75 

SECTION  III.  — Precision. 

Meaning  of  Precision,        .           .           .           .           .           .           .           .  .79 

Examples  of  Words  not  Used  Precisely,        ......  79 

The  Study  of  Synonyms,               .           .           .           .           .           .           .  .79 

Books  on  the  Subject  of  Synonyms,  .  .  ,  .  .  .79 

Examples  of  Synonyms,  ........    80 

Appendix  : 

Camphell's  Essay  on  Use  as  the  Law  of  Language,    .  J^    .          .           •           •  ^ 


via 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  HI. 
Sentences. 

PAOI 

DiTiflion  of  the  Subject, 87 

PART  I.  —  Kinds  of  Sentences. 

Section  1.  Periodic  Sentences,     ........    87 

Section  2.  Loose  Sentences,    .  .  .  .  .  ...  .88 

Examples  6f  each,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .89 

Section  3.  Balanced  Sentences,  .......         93 

F"  oQples,  .........    94 

OSes  of  the  Balanced  Sentence,        ......  95 

Section  4,  Short  and  Long  Sentences,    .  .  .  .  .  .  .95 

Rule  in  Regard  to  the  Use  of  the  Various  Kinds  of  Sentences,  .  .         96 

PART  II.— Rules  for  the  Construction  of  Sentences. 


RULE  I. — Cleaeness. 

Section  1.  Position  of  the  Adverb, 
Section  2.  Position  of  Adverbial  Clauses, 
Section  3.  Squinting  Construction,      . 
Section  4.  Use  of  the  Pronouns, 
Summary  of  Rule  I.,    . 

BULB  n.  — Emphasis. 

Section  1.  The  Principal  Subject, 

Disposal  of  Subsidiary  Matter, 
Section  2.  The  Principal  Predicate, 

Principal  Words  not  to  be  Entangled, 

RULE  IIL— Unitt. 

General  Illustration  of  Unity, 
Section  1.  Change  of  Subject  to  be  Avoided, 
Section  2.  Crowding  Together  Things  Unconnected, 
Section  S.  Management  of  Relative  Clauses, 
Section  4.  Parentheses,        .... 
Section  6.  Supplementary  Clauses,     . 

RULE  IV.— Stebnoth. 

Section  1.  Redundant  Words,         . 

Section  2.  Use  of  Very,  etc.. 

Section  3.  Words  of  Connection  and  Transition, 

Section  4.  Bringing  to  a  Conclusion, 

Section  5.  Contrasted  Changes, 

Section  6.  Climax,  .... 

BULE  v.— Haemont. 

Section  1.  Prevalence  of  Pleasant  Sounds, 
Section  2.  Accents  at  Convenient  Intervals, 
Section  3.  Cadence  at  the  Close, 
Section  4.  Adapting  the  Sound  to  the  Sens*, . 


101 
.  104 

107 
.  Ill 

112 
.  113 

114 
.  115 

118 
.  119 

120 
.  121 

121 
.  122 

125 
.  127 

127 
.  129 

131 
.  131 

134 

136 

137 

.  138 


CONTENTS.  IX 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Figures. 

PAGK 

Relation  of  the  Subject  to  what  Precedes,         ......  147 

Definition  of  Figures,    .........        147 

Origin  and  Use  of  Figures,  ........  148 

SECTION  L  — Simile. 

Why  Similes  Please,  .........  150 

Object  of  Simile,  .........        151 

Rule  1.  The  Resemblance  should  not  be  too  Near  and  Obvious,        .  .  .  152 

Rule  2.  The  Resemblance  should  not  be  too  Remote,        ....        152 

Rule  3.  Should  not  be  Drawn  from  Objects  with  which  Ordinary  Readers  are 

Unacquainted,      .......  .        153 

Rule  4.  Should  not  be  Drawn  from  what  is  Mean  and  Low,  .  .  .  153 

Rule  5.  Should  not  be  Stilted,  ........        154 

Rule  6.  Should  not  be  Used  in  Cases  of  Strong  Passion,         ....  154 

SECTION  11.  —  Metaphor. 

Difference  between  Metaphor  and  Simile,  ......  156 

Rule  1.  Metaphorical  and  Literal  should  not  be  Mixed,   ....        156 

Rule  2.  One  Metaphor  should  not  be  Mixed  with  Another,    ....  157 

Rule  3.  Metaphors  should  not  be  Crowded  Together,        ....        157 

Rule  4.  Metaphors  should  not  be  Multiplied  to  Excess,  ....  158 

Rule  5.  Metaphors  should  not  be  Carried  too  Far,  .....       159 

SECTION  III.  — Allegory. 

Relations  of  Allegory  to  Metaphor  and  Simile,  .     ■     .  .  .  .  .  159 

Allegory,  Parable,  and  Fable,  ........       160 

SECTION  IV.  — Antithesis. 

Definition  of  the  Subject,  ........  Iffl 

Rule  in  Regard  to  Antithesis,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .        lei 

SECTION  v.  — Epigram. 

Relation  of  Epigram  to  Antithesis,        .......  163 

SECTION  VI.  — Metonymy. 

Definitions  and  Illustrations  of  the  Subject,    ......  164 

SECTION  VII.  —  Synecdoche. 

Explanation  of  the  Subject,  .  .  .  .  .  .  ,  ^  lg5 

SECTION  VIIL  — Interrogation. 

Definition,    •........,,  165 

Uses  and  Peculiarities,  ........       166 

SECTION  IX.  —  Exclamation. 

Explanation  of  the  Figure,  ,  .  .  .  .  .  ,  ,  Ijj 


ac  CONTENTS. 

SECTION  X.— Apostrophe. 

PAO> 

Definition  and  Examples,  ........  167 

SECTION  XI.  —  Personification. 

Special  Facilities  in  English,        .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .168 

SECTION  XII.  — Hyperbole. 

Caution  in  Regard  to  its  Use,       ........  169 

SECTION  XIII.  — Irony. 

Its  Uses        .  .  .  .  . 170 

CHAPTER  V. 
Special  Properties. 

Division  of  the  Subject,     .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .187 

SECTION  I.  — Sublimity. 

I.  What  Constitutes  Sublimity. 

1.  Vastness,     .........  188 

2.  Power, .189 

3.  Awfulness,  ...*.....  190 

4.  Obscurity,         .           .           .           .           .           .           •           .  .190 

6.  Loudness  of  Sound,           .......  191 

6.  Moral  Greatness,         ........  191 

II.  The  Sublime  in  Writing. 

1.  Sublimity  of  Subject,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .192 

2.  Vivid  Conception  of  the  Strong  Points,  ....       192 

3.  Suppression  of  Belittling  Details,    ......  193 

4.  Simplicity  and  Conciseness  of  Expression,        ....       194 

SECTION  II.  — Beauty. 

I.  Beauty  in  General. 

1.  Color  as  an  Element  of  Beauty,  .....       196 

2.  Figures,  etc.,     «        "        "  .  .  .  .  .  .197 

8.  Motion, .198 

4.  Complex  Beauty,         ........  198 

6.  Beauty  of  Countenance,    .......       199 

6.  Moral  Beauty,  ........  199 

II.  The  Beautiful  in  Writing. 

1.  Beauty  of  Subject, .200 

2.  Beauty  of  Expression,       .......        200 

3.  Conciseness  not  Necessary,    .......  201 

SECTION  III.  — Wit. 

Ingredients  of  Wit, 201 

Definition  of  Wit, 202 

Examples,    .......  ....  203 

Pun  — aSpeciMof  Wit,  .....       204 


CONTENTS.  XI 

PAGB 

Examples  of  Pun,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  ^  .  204 

Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of  Wit,         ......       205 

SECTION  IV.  — Humor. 

Ingredients  of  Humor,       .........  206 

Humor  Something  Characteristic,      .......       207 

Humor  Kind-hearted,         .........  208 

Difference  Between  Humor  and  Wit,  ......       208 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Versification. 

The  Foun(iation  of  Verso,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .209 

The  State  of  the  Question,      .  .  .  ...  .  .  .209 

Why  a  Thought  in  Verse  Pleases  more  than  the  same  in  Prose,       .  .  .210 

Action  of  the  Vocal  Organs,     ........        210 

Vocal  Impulse,       ..........  211 

Strong  and  Light  Impulses,   ........        211 

Time  between  Impulses,    .........  211 

Accent  the  Paramount  Law,    ........        212 

Foundation  and  Nature  of  Rhythm,       .  .  .  .  .  .  .  213 

The  Conclusion,  .........        214 

SECTION  I.  — Rhythm. 

Definition  of  Terms,           .           .           .           .           .           .           .           •  .215 

Kinds  of  Feet, 216 

Kinds  and  Varieties  of  Verse,        .           .           .           .          .           .           .  .216 

Tables  of  Iambic  and  Trochaic  Verse,           ......  218 

ffable  of  Anapaastic  and  Dactylic  Verse,             .           .           .           .           .  .219 

SECTION  II.  — Rhyme. 

Origin  of  Rhyme, 220 

Definition,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .'  .  .  .221 

Single,  Double,  and  Triple  Rhymes,       .  .  .  .      *     .  .  .  221 

Alliteration  as  a  Species  of  Rhyme,  ......       222 

True  Rhyme,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .222 

Conditions  of  Single  Rhyme,  ........       223 

Conditions  of  Double  and  Triple  Rhyme,  ......  224 

Place  of  the  Rhyming  Word,  ........        224 

Sectional  Rhymes,  .........  225 

SECTION  III.  — Blank  Verse. 

Usual  Form,  .  ,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .226 

Other  Forms  of  Blank  Verse,  .  ......        226 

SECTION  IV.  — Mixed  Verse. 

English  Verse  Different  from  Classic,     .......  226 

Mixed  Verse  in  English,  .  ...  .  .  ...  .       227 

English  Hexameters,  .........  227 

Conditions  of  Success  to  Mixed  Verse,  ......       228 


XU  CONTENTS. 

SECTION  v.  — Stanzas. 

PAOI 
Rhythm-Royal,  or  Chaucerian  Stanza,    .......  229 

Spenserian  Stanza,    .  ........       229 

Sonnet  Stanza,  ..........  230 

Psalm  and  Hymn  Stanzas,      ........       231 

Long,  Short,  Common,  and  Particular  Metres,  .....  232 

SECTION  VI. —Modern  Verse  Accentual. 

Essential  Difference  Between  Ancient  Verse  and  Modern,      ....  235 
Present  State  of  English  Verse,         .  .  .  .  .  .  .       236 

SECTION  VII.  — Elision. 

Mistake  of  the  Older  Critics,         ........  237 

Requirements  of  Modern  Verse  in  Regard  to  Elision,        ....       238 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Poetry. 

Defective  Definitions,        .  .  .  .  .  .  ...  .  249 

Poetry  must  be  in  the  Form  of  Verse,         ......        249 

The  Matter  must  be  Poetical  in  Essence,  ......  249 

Definition  of  Poetry, 261 

SECTION  I.  — Epic  Poetry. 

1.  The  Subject  must  be  Great  and  Heroic,         ......  251 

2.  It  must  have  Unity,  ........       252 

3.  It  must  have  a  Hero,    .........  253 

4.  It  must  have  Many  Actors  and  a  Complex  Plot,         .  ...       263 

5.  It  must  be  Serious  and  Earnest,.        .......  263 

6.  The  Story  must  be  Interesting,      .......       253 

SECTION  II. —  Dramatic  Poetry. 

Difference  between  the  Drama  and  the  Epic,    ......  254 

Unities  of  the  Drama,  ........       255 

Tragedy  and  Comedy,        .........  255 

Farce,  Opera,  and  Melodrama,  .......       256 

SECTION  III.— Lyric  Poetry. 

1.  Sacred  Odes  —  Hymnic  Poetry,  .......  256 

2.  Heroic  Odes,  .........       257 

3.  Moral  Odes, 257 

4.  Amatory  Odes,  .........        257 

6.  Comic  and  Bacchanalian  Songs,  .......  258 

6.  Sonnet* 258 

SECTION  IV.  — Elegiac  Poetry. 
Oharaoter  and  Form, 2»8 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 

SECTION  v.  — Pastoral  Poetry. 

PAGE 

Its  Character,         .  .  .  .  • 259 

Eclogues,  .  .  ........        259 

Idyls, 259 

SECTION  VI.  —  Didactic  Poetry. 

Its  Character,  ..........  259 

Objection  to  its  being  Ranked  as  Poetry,      ......       260 

Meditative  Poetry,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .260 

Satire  and  Lampoon,    .........       260 


CHAPTER  VIIL 
Prose  Composition. 


Definition  and  Varieties,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .261 

SECTION  I. —  Letters. 

An  Important  Species  of  Composition,   .......  261 

Letters  of  Distinguished  Persons,       .......        262 

What  is  Required  in  a  Letter,      .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .262 

The  Forms  to  be  Observed  in  Letter-Writing,  .....        263 

I.  The  Heading. 

1.  The  Place  of  Writing,  .  .  .  .  .  .  -263 

2.  The  Time  of  Writing,  or  Date,    ......        264 

II.  The  Address. 

The  Military  Form,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .265 

Ordinary  Letters,       ........        265 

Business  Letters,  ........  266 

m.  The  Subscription. 

Signing  Initials,         ........        266 

Married  Women  and  Widows,    .......  267 

Arrangement  of  the  Subscription,  ......        267 

IV.  The  Superscription. 

Why  Important,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  ^68 

1.  The  Name, 268 

2.  The  Title, 268 

3.  The  Residence,       ........       269 

SECTION  II.  —  Diaries. 

Essential  Character,  .........  271 

Importance  of  Accuracy  in  Dates,     .......        271 

The  Style, 271 

SECTION  III. —News. 

Literary  Character  of  News,         ........  272 

Things  to  be  Aimed  at  in  News- Writing,      ......       272 

1.  Accuracy,         .........  273 

2.  Condensation,        .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .        273 

3.  Perspicuity,     .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  274 

2 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

SECTION  IV.  —  Editorials. 

PASB 

A  High  Order  of  Composition,     ........  275 

Not  Impersonal  Truth,  ........        276 

Diifei-ence  between  Editorials  and  News,  ......  276 

SECTION  v.  — Reviews. 

Character,    ...........  278 

Macaulay  as  a  Reviewer,  ........        277 

Other  Reviewers,     ..........  278 

SECTION  VI.  — Essays. 

Different  from  Reviews,    .........  278 

Number  of  Essayists,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .        279 

Present  Mode  of  Publication,       ........  279 

SECTION  VII.— Treatises. 

How  Different  from  Essays,         ........  279 

Text-Books,       ..........        280 

SECTION  VIIL— Travels. 

Compared  with  Diaries,     .........  280 

Accuracy  Important,    .........        280 

Other  Qualities 281 

SECTION  IX.  — History. 

Its  General  Character,       .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .281 

Unity  of  Subject, 282 

Chronological  Order,  .........  282 

General  Qualities  of  Historical  Narration,  .....        282 

Gravity  of  Style,      ..........  283 

Delineation  of  Characters,       ........        284 

Sound  Morals  to  be  Enforced,      .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  284 

Annals,  Memoirs,  Biographies,  etc.,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .       285 

*  SECTION  X.  — Fiction. 

Its  Prevalence,        .           .           .           .           .           .           .           .           .  .286 

Historical  Novels 286 

Delineation  of  Character,  .            .            .           .            .           .            .            .  .287 

Effects  of  Novel-Reading,         ........  287 

Religioua  Fictions  —  Sundoy-School  Books,      .....  •  287 

SECTION  XI.  —  Discourses. 

Orations,      .....  .....  288 

Addresses, 288 

Sermons,       ...........  289 

Lectures, 289 

Speeches, 289 

Rules  for  Constructing  Discourses,    .......        290 

1.  Unity 290 


CONTENTS.  XV 

PAGB 

2.  Adaptation  to  the  Audience,  .......       290 

3.  Symmetry  of  Parts,  ........  290 

a.  The  Introduction,  .......       291 

b.  The  Statement,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .291 

c.  The  Main  Discourse,  .  .  ...  .  .  .       291 

d.  The  Peroration,  or  Conclusion,         ......  291 


Part  IL 


INVENTION. 

Definition  of  Invention,    .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  293 

Mistakes  on  the  Subject,  ........        294 

Method  Adopted  in  the  Present  Work,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .294 

CHAPTER  I. 
On  Objects. 

Composition  on  Paper,       .........  296 

Other  Subjects  for  Composition,        .......        297 

CHAPTER  II. 
On  Transactions. 

Composition  on  Going  to  School,  .........  299 

Other  Subjects  for  Composition,        .......        301 

CHAPTER  III. 
On  Abstract  Subjects. 

Composition  on  Fear,         .........  302 

Other  Subjects  for  Composition,         .......        304 

CHAPTER  IV. 
On  Imaginary  Subjects. 

Compositions  on  the  Man  in  the  Moon,   .......  305 

Other  Subjects  for  Composition,         .......       Slf 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  V. 
Personal  Narratives. 

PAQl 

Compositions  on  How  I  Spent  my  Vacation,     ......  313 

Composition  on  a  Trip  by  Railroad,  ......        817 

Other  Subjects  for  Composition,  .......  321 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Descriptions. 

Our  Cat  and  the  Rabbit,  Described, .323 

The  Scene  from  Trenton  Bridge,  Described,  .....        325 

Other  Subjects  for  Description,    ........  327 

CHAPTER  VI  I. 
Miscellaneous  Subjects. 

Recapitulation,       ..........  328 

General  List  of  Subjects  for  Compositions,  ......       329 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
On  Proof-Reading. 

Example  of  Proof-Sheet,     .......  .834 

Explanat¥)n8  of  the  Corrections,        .......       335 

Example  of  Proof-Sheet  Corrected,         .......  336 

CHAPTER  IX. 

On  the  Study  of  the  English  Language,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .337 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX, 


Yz  /r^Zj 


/^  Introduction. 

1.  Rhetoric  is  the  science  which  treats  of  discourse. 

2.  By  Discourse  is  meant  any  expression  of  thought  by 
means  of  language. 

3.  Discourse  may  be  either  oral  or  written. 

Note  1.  Rhetoric  referred  originally  to  spoken  discourse  only. 
This  is  shown  by  the  etymology  of  the  word,  the  original  Greek 
^tjropiKij  irhetorike)  meaning  the  art  of  speaking,  from  p>jrwp  {rhetor),  a 
speaker.  But  since  the  invention  of  printing,  and  the  general  diffu- 
sion of  books,  speaking  forms  only  a  part  of  the  means  by  which 
man  discourses,  or  makes  known  in  language  his  thoughts  to  others. 
While,  therefore,  for  convenience,  the  term  Rhetoric  is  retained,  the 
science  itself  is  extended  in  its  scope,  and  is  made  to  embrace  every 
kind  of  discourse,  whether  oral  or  written. 

Note  2.  Rhetoric,  as  thus  defined,  includes  both  Written  Composi- 
tion and  Oratory ;  but  the  two  may  with  great  convenience  and  pro- 
priety be  treated  of  separately.  In  the  present  treatise,  therefore, 
all  that  part  of  the  subject  which  is  peculiar  to  Oratory,  including 
Vocal  Delivery,  is  omitted,  and  the  work  is  limited  strictly  to  written 
discourse.  There  may  be  some  doubt,  perhaps,  as  to  the  propriety 
of  retaining  the  general  title,  when  thus  avowedly  treating  of  only 
one  of  the  component  parts  of  the  subject.  But  Rhetoric,  as  a  com- 
mon subject  of  study  in  schools,  has  long  since  practically  become 
thus  limited  in  its  scope,  while  Oratory  has  branched  off  into  a  sepa- 
rate study. 

Note  3.  Rhetoric  is  closely  allied,  on  the  one  side,  to  Grammar, 
which  determines  the  laws  of  language,  and,  on  the  other,  to  Logic, 
which  determines  the  laws  of  thought. 

2*  2  18 


C 


14  COMPOSITION-    AKTD    RHETORIC. 

Note  4.  In  establishing  principles  and  rules  for  conducting  dis- 
course, Rhetoric  assumes  as  true  whatever  is  determined  by  the  sci- 
ences of  Grammar  and  Logic.  A  discourse,  though  rhetorical  in 
other  respects,  will  lose  much  of  its  effect,  if  either  the  expression 
is  ungrammatical,  or  the  thought  illogical.  On  the  other  hand,  how- 
ever, an  expression  may  violate  no  rule,  either  of  Grammar  or  of 
Logic,  and  yet  be  faulty.  Rhetoric,  in  other  words,  has  require- 
ments of  its  own,  in  addition  to  those  imposed  by  Grammar  and 
Logic. 

Note  6.  In  treating  of  discourse,  we  naturally  divide  the  subject 
into  two  parts — that  which  considers  the  matter,  or  thought  to  be 
expressed,  and  that  which  considers  the  mode  of  expression.  The 
former  of  these  is  usually  treated  under  the  head  of  Invention,  the 
latter  under  the  head  of  Style. 

Note  6.  Theoretically,  it  is,  perhaps,  more  philosophical  to  treat 
first  of  Invention,  and  then  of  Style.  It  seems  but  natural  that  we 
should  first  find  out  what  to  say,  and  then  study  how  to  say  it.  But 
there  are  practical  conveniences  in  following  a  diflferent  order. 
Invention  is  the  most  difficult  part  of  the  subject,  requiring  no  little 
maturity  of  mind  on  the  part  of  the  learner.  Style,  on  the  other 
hand,  connects  itself  closely  with  grammatical  studies,  which  always 
precede  the  study  of  Rhetoric,  and  it  has  many  details  of  a  simple 
and  positive  character,  about  which  the  judgment  of  pupils  may  be 
exercised,  long  before  tJiey  can  enter  with  profit  upon  the  processes 
of  original  thought  required  by  Invention.  In  the  present  treatise, 
therefore,  the  order  is  reversed.  Style  being  considered  first,  and 
Invention  afterwards. 

Note  7.  While  the  general  subject  of  Invention  is  thus  placed  last,' 
the  simpler  kinds  of  exercises  in  it  are  clearly  suitable  to  those  who 
are  just  beginning  the  study  of  Rhetoric.  It  is,  therefore,  recom- 
mended to  the  student  to  take  up  some  of  these  simpler  exercises  at 
the  same  time  that  he  begins  the  study  of  Style,  and  thus  to  carry 
on  the  study  of  the  two  portions  of  the  book  contemporaneously ;  in 
other  words,  to  practise  Invention  while  studying  Style. 

4.  Rhetoric  is  divided  into  two  parts ;  namely,  Part  I., 
Style  ;  Part  II.,  Invention. 

6 


Part  I. 


, .   »   »  »    »    » 


P .  ^  Sty  l  fe.  .'o  : 


''"'-' I'' t\* 


• »  • «' 


1.  Style  is  that  part  of  Rhetoric  which  treats  of  the 
mode  of  expression. 

Note  1.  Any  verbal  expression  of  thought,  even  in  its  lowest  and 
plainest  forms,  brings  us  within  the  domain  of  Grammar.  But,  be- 
yond the  bare  expression  of  the  meaning;  we  can  conceive  of  it  as 
being  uttered  awkwardly  or  elegantly,  plainly  or  figuratively,  con- 
cisely or  diffusely,  and  in  a  great  variety  of  other  ways  ;  and  the  con- 
sideration of  these  various  methods  of  expression  takes  us  at  once 
beyond  the  region  of  Grammar,  and  brings  us  into  that  of  Rhetoric. 

Note  2.  Style  is  sometimes  used  in  a  more  restricted  sense,  namely, 
to  indicate  certain  special  kinds  of  writing  and  speaking.  But  there 
is  no  necessity  for  limiting  the  meaning  of  the  word  in  this  way. 
Webster  very  properly  defines  Style  to  be  the  "  mode  of  expressing 
thought  in  language,  whether  oral  or  written,"  and  in  this  broad 
sense  the  word  is  used  in  the  present  treatise. 

Note  3.  The  word  Style  comes  from  the  Latin  stylus,  a  small  steel 
instrument  used  by  the  Romans  for  writing  on  waxen  tablets.  The 
stylus  was  to  the  Roman  writer  what  the  pen  is  to  us,  and  became, 
by  an  easy  metaphor,  the  means  of  expressing  any  one's  method  of 
composition,  just  as  we  now,  by  a  like  metaphor,  speak  of  a  gifted 
pen,  a  ready  pen,  meaning  thereby  a  gifted  or  a  ready  author. 

Note  4.  Style  is  concerned  equally  with  Prose  and  Poetry,  and 
with  the  various  figures  of  speech  which  are  common  to  both ;  it  is 
coextensive  with  the  whole  range  of  composition  and  of  discourse, 

15 


16  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORIC. 

both  oral  and  written.  To  find  out  what  to  say  is  the  business  of 
Invention  ;  but  the  moulding  of  the  materials  thus  furnished  belongs 
to  Style.  It  includes  in  its  scope  whatever,  in  the  arts  and  contriv- 
ances of  speech,  can  make  the  expression  of  thought  more  eflFective. 
In  its  lower  forms,  it  treats  of  Punctuation  and  the  use  of  Capitals, 
and  of  other  contrivances  of  a  mechanical  sort,  which  help  to  give 
clearness  to  the  meaning,  while  in  its  higher  forms  it  enters  upon 
the  region  of  the  Imagination  and  the  Passions,  and  deals  with  ques- 
tions of  Taste  and  Fancy. 

2.  The  various  topics  included   in   Style   are   discussed 

under ^'the  fojloAjip^  Re^ds:  1,  Punctuation  and  Capitals; 

2,  biCTiON;  S,  Sentences;  4,  Figures;  5,  Special  Prop- 

.'^kT/E&.^;  ST^sJiic ;  jS/yERaiFicATiON ;  7,  Poetry;  8,  Prose 

Composition. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Punctuation  and  Capitals. 

1.  Punctuatioil  is  the  art  of  dividing  written  discourse 
into  sections  by  means  of  points,  for  the  purpose  of  showing 
the  grammatical  connection  and  dependence,  and  of  making 
the  sense  more  obvious.* 

2.  Capitals  are  used  for  a  like  purpose,  and,  therefore, 
they  may  with  propriety  be  treated  of  at  the  same  time  with 
the  Points. 

Note  1.  That  the  sense  is  made  more  obvious  to  the  eye  by  the  use  of  points  and 
capitals  will  be  evident  to  any  one  who  will  make  the  experiment.  Take  almost  any 
familiar  sentence,  and  write  it  as  the  ancients  used  to  write,  that  is,  unpointed  and 
unspaced,  and  with  the  letters  either  all  small  or  all  capital,  and  it  will  require  no 
little  skill  and  patience  to  decipher  the  meaning.  A  reader  not  apprised  of  what  had 
been  done  would  be  apt  to  mistake  the  sentence  for  something  in  a  foreign  language. 
Here  is  an  example,  first  in  capitals,  next  in  small  letters,  and  then  in  the  form  now 
in  use: 

READINGMAKETHAFULLMANCONFERENCEAREADYMANWRITINGAN 

EXACTMAN. 

readingmakethafullmanconferenceareadymanwritinganexactman. 

Reading  maketh  a  full  man ;  conference,  a  ready  man ;  writing,  an  exact  man. 

Note  2.  The  word  Punctuation  is  from  the  Latin  punctum,  a  point.  The  points  now 
used  in  writing  were  unknown  to  the  ancients.  Aristophanes,  a  grammarian  of 
Alexandria,  about  two  and  a  half  centuries  before  the  Christian  era,  introduced  some 


*  In  the  preparation  of  this  chapter,  the  author  has  received  material  assistance,  as 
every  writer  must  receive  who  writes  intelligently  on  the  subject,  from  the  excellent 
"Treatise  on  English  Pimctuation"  by  John  Wilson.  That  is  the  most  complete  and 
exhaustive  treatise  extant  on  this  subject.  Every  teacher  should  have  a  copy  of  it  on 
his  desk,  if  for  nothing  else,  for  the  admirable  collection  of  classified  examples  which 
it  contains. 

17 


18  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

of  the  marks  now  used  in  punctuation.  But  the  points  did  not  come  into  common 
use  until  the  time  of  Aldus  Manutius,  a  learned  printer  of  Venice,  who  reduced  the 
matter  to  a  system  about  the  year  1500,  and,  by  the  extreme  beauty  and  accuracy  of 
his  editions,  gave  it  general  currency. 

Note  3.  The  word  Capital  is  from  the  Latin  caput,  a  head.  The  letters  of  the  word 
or  words  forming  the  caput,  heading,  or  title  of  a  discourse,  are  called  head-lettera,  or 
capitals. 

Note  4.  The  capital  letters  were  those  first  invented,  and  were  in  use  many  centuries 
before  the  invention  of  the  small  letters.  The  oldest  manuscripts  now  in  existence, 
some  of  which  date  as  far  back  as  the  third  century,  are  written  entirely  in  capitals, 
and  are  likewise  almost  without  points,  and  without  spacing  between  the  words. 
The  small  letters  were  first  introduced  about  the  seventh  century ;  but,  for  some  time 
after  the  introduction  of  the  small  letters,  the  capitals  continued  to  be  used  much 
more  than  they  are  now. 

Note  5.  It  is  sometimes  stated,  in  works  on  Rhetoric  and  Grammar,  that  the  points 
are  for  the  purposes  of  elocution,  and  directions  are  given  to  pupils  to  pause  a  certain 
time  at  each  of  the  stops.  It  is  true  that  a  pause  required  for  elocutionary  purposes 
does  sometimes  coincide  with  a  grammatical  point,  and  so  the  one  aids  the  other. 
Yet  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  first  and  main  end  of  the  points  is  to  mark 
grammatical  divisions.  Good  elocution  often  requires  a  pause  where  there  is  no  break 
whatever  in  the  grammatical  continuity,  and  where  the  insertion  of  a  point  wotild 
make  nonsense.  For  instance,  the  most  common  of  all  the  elocutionary  pauses  is 
that  made  for  the  purpose  of  emphasis.  If  we  wish  to  make  a  word  emphatic,  the  way 
to  do  so,  except  in  rare  cases,  is  not  to  pronounce  it  very  loudly,  but  to  make  a  pause  after 
it.  This  pause  calls  attention  to  the  word,  and  with  only  a  slight  change  in  the  tone  of 
the  voice  makes  the  word  emphatic.  The  insertion  of  a  point  to  mark  this  pause  would 
often  detach  adjectives  from  their  nouns,  nominatives  from  their  verbs,  and  would,  in 
many  other  equally  absurd  ways,  break  up  the  connection  of  the  sentence.  The  fol- 
lowing line  from  Shakspeare  requires  after  "  words  "  and  "  thoughts  "  a  pause  equal 
to  that  ordinarily  assigned  to  a  semicolon,  perhaps  equal  to  that  assigned  to  a  period. 

"  My  words  fly  up,  my  thoughts  remain  below." 

If  a  point  were  inserted  to  mark  this  pause,  the  whole  meaning  of  the  sentence  would 
be  obscured.  Thus:  "My  words;  fly  up,  my  thoughts;  remain  below."  If  it  were 
desirable  to  mark  these  elocutionary  pauses  by  typographical  arrangements,  perhaps 
the  best  way  would  be  to  do  it  by  spacing.    Thus : 

"  My  words       fly  up,  my  thoughts       remain  below." 

3.  The  principal  grammatical  points  are  five;  namely, 

1.  The  Comma,  , 

2.  The  Semicolon,  ; 

3.  The  Colon,        : 

4.  The  Period, 

5.  The  Interrogation,   ? 

Note.  These  points  have  various  degrees  of  disjunctive  force,  in  separating  the  parts 
of  a  sentence  from  each  other.  This  force  may  bo  expressed  briefly,  as  follows :  The 
Period,  except  when  used  for  an  abbreviation,  marks  the  greatest  separation  of  all, 


PUNCTUATION  —  COMMA.  19 

the  parts  between  which  it  is  placed  being  thereby  rendered  grammatically  entirely 
independent  of  each  other ;  the  Colon  marks  a  separation  somewhat  less  than  that  of 
the  Period ;  the  Semicolon,  less  than  that  of  the  Colon ;  and  the  Comma,  less  than 
that  of  the  Semicolon.  The  Interrogation,  though  usually  counted  as  equivalent  to  a 
period,  may  be  equivalent  to  a  comma,  a  semicolon,  a  colon,  or  a  period,  according  to 
eircumstances.* 

4.  Besides  the  five  points  already  named,  several  other 
characters  are  used  for  similar  purposes.  The  most  common 
of  these  are  the  following : 

The  Exclamation,       ! 

The  Dash,  — 

The  Parenthesis,       (  ) 

The  Bracket,  [  ] 

The  Quotation,         "  " 

The  Apostrophe,  * 


€ 


SECTION   I. 

The  Comma. 


The  Comma  marks  the  smallest  of  the  grammatical  divi- 
sions of  discourse  that  require  a  point. 

NoTB  1.  The  word  Comma  (Greek  Koiifia,  from  cdn-TM,  to  cut)  denotes  something  cut 
oflF,  a  section.  It  was  used  originally  to  denote,  not  the  mark,  but  the  portion  of  the 
sentence  thus  set  off.  The  same  is  true  of  the  words  semicolon  and  colon.  They 
meant  originally  portions  of  discourse,  not,  as  now,  the  marks  by  which  those  por- 
tions are  set  off.  Period,  Interrogation,  Parenthesis,  and  some  other  like  words,  are 
used  in  both  senses ;  they  mean  portions  of  discourse,  and  also  the  marks  by  which 
those  portions  are  set  off. 

NOTK  2.  The  uses  of  the  comma,  which  are  very  numerous,  may  nearly  all  be  re- 
duced to  two  heads.  1.  The  comma  is  used  to  set  off  by  itself  any  part  of  a  sentence 
which  is,  in  some  measure,  detached  in  meaning  from  the  rest,  and  which  has  a  sort  of 
grammatical  coherence  and  completeness  of  its  own.  2.  The  comma  is  used  to  mark  an 
ellipsis  of  some  kind.  Example:  "Reading  maketh  a  full  man;  conference,  a  ready 
man;  writing,  an  exact  man."  Here  the  ellipsis  of  the  verb  maketh,  after  "con- 
ference," and  after  "writing,"  is  indicated  by  the  insertion  of  the  comma. 

Note  3.  Although  nearly  every  conceivable  instance  of  the  use  of  the  comma  may 
be  reduced  imder  one  or  the  other  of  these  heads,  yet  for  practical  convenience  in 

*  There  aeems  no  more  necessity  for  sajing  Interrogation  Point,  Exclamation  Ptiint^ 
4c.,  than  for  saying  Comma  Point,  Semicolon  Point.  Custom,  however,  still  obliges  u« 
to  use  the  expression  in  some  connections. 


20  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

teaching  iti  use,  the  various  instances  may  very  properly  be  classified,  forming  a  series 
of  independent,  though  connected  rules* 

t  Rule  1.  Parenthetical  Expressions. — Phrases  and  single 
words,  used  parenthetically,  should  be  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas.  v 

Note  1.  Phrases  and  words  are  parenthetical  when  they  are  not  essential  to  the 
meaning  and  structure  of  the  sentence  in  which  they  stand.  Such  words  and  phrases 
belong  rather  to  some  unexpressed  thought  that  is  in  the  mind,  than  to  the  thought 
actually  expressed.  Thus,  "It  is  mind,  after  all,  which  does  the  work  of  the  world.'' 
Here  the  phrase  "after  all "  does  not  belong  to  the  verb  "does."  The  author  does  not 
mean  to  say  that  mind  does  the  work  of  the  world,  after  doing  everything  else.  In 
like  manner,  it  does  not  modify  any  other  part  of  the  expressed  sentence.  On  the 
contrary,  it  belongs  to  some  unexpressed  thought,  as  though  we  were  to  say,  "  After  all 
that  can  be  claimed  for  other  agents,  we  may  still  claim  for  the  mind,  that  it  does  the 
work  of  the  world."  Sometimes  the  parenthetical  word  or  phrase  refers  to  what  is 
expressed  in  the  preceding  sentence.  Thus,  "The  danger  was  fully  explained  to  him. 
His  passions,  however,  prevented  his  seeing  it."  Parenthetical  expressions,  then,  are 
such  as  are  not  necessary  to  the  structure  and  meaning  of  the  sentence  in  which  they 
stand,  if  taken  alone,  but  they  are  a  part  of  *he  machinery,  so  to  speak,  by  which  the 
sentence  is  connected  with  some  preceding  sentence,  or  with  some  unexpressed  sentence 
or  thought  existing  in  the  mind  of  the  writer.  They  are,  in  fact,  of  a  conjunctional, 
rather  than  of  an  adverbial  character. 

Note  2.  Many  phrases  and  clauses,  now  treated  as  parenthetical  expressions,  and 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas,  were  formerly  inclosed  by  marks 
of  parenthesis.  The  difference  between  a  parenthesis  and  a  parenthetical  expression 
is  mainly  one  of  degree.  If  the  clause  or  expression,  thus  thrust  into  the  body  of  a 
sentence,  is  altogether  independent  in  character,  and  may  be  omitted  without  disturb- 
ing the  construction,  or  impairing  the  meaning,  it  is  still  usually  inclosed  in  a  paren- 
thesis. But  commas  are  gradually  displacing  the  parenthesis,  except  in  extreme  and 
very  manifest  cases. 

Note  3.  Some  of  the  phrases  in  common  use,  which  require  to  be  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas,  are  the  following : 

in  short,  In  truth,  to  be  sure, 

in  fact,  as  it  were,  to  be  brief, 

in  fine,  as  it  happens,  after  all, 

in  reality,  no  doubt,  you  know, 

in  brief,  in  a  word,  of  course. 

When  these  parenthetical  expressions  come  at  the  beginning,  or  at  the  end  of  a 
sentence,  they  arc,  of  course,  set  off  by  only  a  single  comma ;  as,  "To  be  sure,  the  man 
was  rather  conceited."  "The  affair  passed  off  to  your  satisfaction,  no  doubt."  See 
foot-note  below. 

*  In  framing  these  rules,  it  is  customary  to  say,  of  certain  clauses  or  sections  of  a 
sentence,  that  they  are  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas,  meaning 
that  they  have  a  comma  before  and  a  comma  after.  In  some  instances,  tlie  section 
tlnis  designated  occurs  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  in  which  case  it  will  of 
course  have  no  comma  before  it ;  or,  it  may  occur  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  in  which 
case  it  will  have  after  it,  not  a  comma,  but  a  period,  or  some  other  mark  greater  than 
a  comma.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases,  however,  the  sections  designated  by  the  use 
of  the  comma  occur  in  tlie  body  of  the  sentence,  requiring  a  comma  before  and  a 
comma  after;  and  the  rules  will  be  expressed  in  this  general  manner,  leaving  it  to  the 
common  sense  of  the  student  to  make  the  necessary  correetion  in  the  case  or  sectiona 


ve 


PUNCTUATION  —  COMMA.  21 


/7= 


Note  4.  Some  of  the  single  words  used  parenthetically,  and  ordinarily  requiring  to 
tl  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas,  are  the  following : 
therefore,  namely,  moreover, 

then,  consequently,  surely, 

however,  indeed,  accordingly, 

perhaps,  too,  finally.  // 

Note  6.  Most  of  the  words  last  named  are  capable  of  two  constructions.    They  may 
belong  either  to  the  proposition  as  a  whole,  or  to  a  single  word  in  it.    It  is  only  when 
used  in  the  former  sense  that  they  require  to  be  set  off  by  commas.    Two  or  three 
examples  will  show  the  difference : 
On  this  statement,  then,  you  may  entirely  rely.     Then  I  believed  you,  now  I  do  not. 
I  thought,  too,  that  you  were  discontented.    I  think  you  are  too  selfish. 
He  promised,  however,  to  set  about  reform  at  once.     However  much  he  promised,  it 
l^^as  but  little  that  he  performed. 

In  all  these  cases,  it  will  be  noticed  that  when  the  word  has  an  adverbial  charac- 
ter, no  commas  ape  required ;  but  when  the  word  becomes  connective  or  conjuuctional, 
it  must  be  set  off  from  the  rest  by  commas. 

Note  6.  Some  words  not  of  a  parenthetical  character,  yet  when  standing  at  the 
beginning  of  a  sentence,  and  referring  to  the  sentence  as  a  whole,  rather  than  to  a 
particular  word,  are  set  off  by  a  comma ;  as,  "  Well,  do  as  you  like."  "  Why,  this  is 
all  wrong."  Some  of  the  words  thus  used  are  well,  why,  now,  yes,  no,  nay,  again, 
further,  first,  secondly,  thirdly,  &c.  In  like  manner,  liere  and  there,  now  and  then, 
when  used  to  introduce  contrasted  expressions,  are  set  off  by  a  comma ;  as,  "  Here, 
all  is  peace  and  quietness ;  there,  all  is  turmoil  and  strife." 

Examples  for  Practice.* 

1.  Gentleness, is  in  truth  the  great  avenue  to  real  enjoyment. 

2.  The  locomotive  bellows  as  it  were  from  the  fury  of  passion, 

3.  He  knows  very  well  come,  what  may  that  the  note  will  be  paid. 

4.  He  had  no  doubt  great  aptitude  for  learning  languages. 

5.  He  went  home  accordingly  and  arranged  his  business,  in  the 
manner  described. 

6.  There  are  in  truth  only  two  things  to  be  consideredjnamely  his 
honesty  and  his  ability. 

thus  cut  off  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  and  without  stopping  to 
make  a  special  exception  under  each  rule. 

*  To  THE  Teacher.  1.  In  these  and  the  other  examples  for  practice  which  will  be 
given  throughout  the  book,  constant  vigilance  must  be  used  to  prevent  the  pupils 
from  marking  the  corrections  in  the  book.  A  book  so  marked  is  valueless  for 
the  purpose  of  study  or  instruction.  It  should  at  once  be  destroyed,  and  replaced  by 
a  new  copy  at  the  expense  of  the  offending  party.  A  stated  inspection  of  the  books, 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  this  fraud,  is  as  necessary  a  part  of  the  teacher's  duty, 
as  it  is  to  examine  the  exercises  presented. 

2.  The  exercises  should  not  be  brought  in  written  out  beforehand,  but  should  in  all 
cases  be  written  in  the  class-room.  This  should  be  considered  an  essential  part  of  the 
recitation.  There  is  no  other  way  of  ascertaining  that  the  pupil  makes  the  correc- 
tions from  his  own  independent  judgment,  and  unless  he  does  this,  the  exercise  is  a 
mere  waste  of  time. 

3.  In  most  cases,  the  following  will  be  found  a  convenient  mode  of  procedure : 
1.  Let  the  students  seriatim  present  their  books  at  the  teacher's  desk  for  inspection, 
•ach  book,  as  presented,  being  open  at  the  page  containing  the  lesson,  and  let  the 
books  remain  there  piled,  until  the  lesson  is  over.  2.  Let  the  teacher  dictate  the 
examples,  and  the  students  write  and  correct  them,  using  for  this  purpose  either  th» 
blackboards,  slates,  or  paper,  according  to  circumstances. 

3 


22  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

7.  Come  then  .and  let  us  reason  together. 

8.  No  nation  in  short  is  free  from  danger. 

9.  When  however  the  hour  for  the  trial  came,  the  man  was  not  to 
be  found. 

10.  Why  those  are  the  very  books  you  want. 

11.  I  proceed  fourthly  to  prove  the  fact  from  your  own  admis- 
sions. 

12.  On  the  other  hand  there  is  great  danger  in  delay. 

13.  We  must  however  pay  some  respect  to  the  opinions  of  one 
who  has  had  so  large  an  experience. 

14.  I  have  shown  how  just  and  equitable  the  arrangement  is ;  and 
now  what  is  the  fair  conclusion  ? 

15.  Attend  first  to  the  study  of  arithmetic ;  and  secondly  to  that 
of  algebra. 

16.  If  I  cannot  induce  you  to  grant  my  request,  why  I  shall  almost 
regret  having  made  it. 

17.  But  on  the  other  hand  do  not  suppose  that  there  is  no  use  in 
trying. 

18.  Feudalism  is  in  fact  the  embodiment  of  pride. 

19.  The  meeting  after  all  was  something  of  a  failure. 

20.  Besides  it  may  be  of  the  greatest  importance  to  you  in  your 
business. 

21.  Thou  knowest  come  what  may  that  the  light  of  truth  can 
never  be  put  out.  _, 

-^KuLE  2.  Intermediate  Expressions.  Clauses  and  expres- 
sions, not  parenthetical  in  character,  yet  so  placed  as  to 
come  between  some  of  the  essential  parts  of  the  sentence, 
as,  for  instance,  between  the  subject  and  the  predicate,  may- 
be called  intermediate  expressions,  and  they  should  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 

Note.  Care  should  be  taken  to  distinguish  these  intermediate  expressions  from 
such  as  are  properly  restrictive  in  thtnr  character.  An  expression  is  restrictive,  when 
it  limits  the  meaning  of  some  particular  word  to  some  particular  sense.  Thus,  "  The 
man  who  plants  the  field  ought  to  reap  the  harvest."  Here  it  is  not  "  the  man " 
merely,  but  "  the  man  who  plants  the  field,"  that  is  the  subject  of  "  ought."  A  sepa- 
ration of  the  relative  and  its  adjuncts  from  "  man,"  by  means  of  commas,  would 
destroy  the  sense.  The  clause,  therefore,  is  restrictive.  It  limits  tlie  mesuiing  to  that 
particular  man.  But  suppose  I  say,  "  Joseph,  who  happened  to  be  in  the  field  at  the 
time,  saw  the  carriage  approach,  and,  in  an  ecstasy  of  delight,  hastened  to  meet  it." 
Here,  the  expression,  "  who  happened  to  be  in  the  field  at  the  time,"  ia'properly  a 
relative  clause,  and  comes  under  Rule  4,  (p.  24) ;  and  the  expression,  "  in  an  ecstasy 
of  delight,"  i«  properly  intermediate,  and  comes  under  Rule  2.    The  former  breaks 


PUNCTUATION  —  COMMA.  23 

the  continuity  between  the  subject  and  the  predicate ;  the  latter,  between  the  two 
predicates. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Classical  studies  regarded  merely  as  a  means  of  culture  are 
deserving  of  general  attention. 

2.  The  sun  with  all  its  train  of  attendant  planets  is  but  a  small 
and  inconsiderable  portion  of  the  universe. 

3.  We  have  endeavored  in  the  preceding  paragraph  to  show  the 
incorrectness  of  his  position. 

4.  Nature  through  all  her  works  delights  in  variety. 

5.  The  speaker  proceeded  with  the  greatest  animation  to  depict 
the  horrors  of  the  scene. 

6.  Christianity  is  in  a  most  important  sense  the  religion  of  sorrow. 

7.  A  man  of  great  wealth  may  for  want  of  education  atid  refine- 
ment of  manner  be  a  mere  cipher  in  society. 

8.  Truth  like  gold  shines  brighter  by  collision. 

9.  Charity  on  whatever  side  we  contemplate  it  is  one  of  the  highest 
Christian  graces. 

10.  One  hour  a  day  steadily  given  to  a  particular  study  will  bring 
in  time  large  accumulations. 

BuLE  3.  Dependent  Clanses. — A  dependent  clause  should  t 
be  separated  by  a  comma,  or  by  commas,  from  the  clause 
upon  which  it  depends. 

Note  1.  Clauses  are  dependent,  when  one  of  them  is  subject  to  the  other  for  the 
completion  of  the  sense. 

Note  2.  One  of  the  dependent  clauses  usually  begins  with  if,  unless,  until,  when, 
where,  or  other  word  expressive  of  condition,  purpose,  cause,  time,  place,  and  the 
like;  as,  "If  you  would  succeed  in  business,  be  honest  and  industrious."  "The  tree 
will  not  bear  fruit  in  autumn,  unless  it  blossoms  in  spring."  This  conditional  word, 
however,  is  not  always  expressed,  the  condition  being  sometimes  implied ;  as,  "  Breathe 
into  a  man  an  earnest  purpose,  and  you  awaken  in  him  a  npw  power.".  Here  the  mean- 
ing is,  '^IfjovL  breathe  into  a  man  an  earnest  purpose,  you  will  awaken,"  &c. 

Note  3.  This  rule  does  not  apply  where  the  grammatical  connection  is  very  close, 
the  succeeding  clause  in  that  case  being  of  a  restrictive  character;  as,  "You  will  reap 
as  you  sow,"  "You  may  go  when  you  please." 

l>roTE  4.  For  the  same  reason,  clauses  united  by  the  conjunction  that  should  not  be 
separated  by  a  comma;  as,  "He  went  abroad  that  he  might  have  opportunities  for 
study."  When,  however,  the  conjunction  is  removed  some  distance  from  the  verb,  or 
the  words  "in  order"  precede,  so  that  the  grammatical  continuity  is  somewhat  broken, 
the  comma  is  used;  as,  "He  went  through  the  principal  provinces  of  the  empire,  thai 
he  might  see  for  himself  the  condition  of  the  people."  "  He  went  abroad,  in  order  that 
he  might  see  foreign  countries." 


24  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 


Examples  for  Practice. 

[N.B.  In  punctuating  these  examples  and  those  which  are  to  follow,  insert  not 
only  the  points  required  by  the  rule  under  consideration,  but  also  those  required  by 
all  the  preceding  rules.] 

1.  If  you  would  succeed  in  business,  be  punctual  in  observing  your 
engagements. 

2.  Every  man  if  Jie  would  succeed  in  business,  must  be  punctual  in 
observing  his  engagements. 

3.  The  days  in  December  you  know  are  at  their  shortest  and  there- 
fore you  must  rise  by  the  dawn  if  .you  would  have  much  daylight. 

4.  The  index  at  the  end  of  the  book  will  enable  the  pupil  if  his 
memory  fail  him  to  discover  the  particular  rule  which  he  needs. 

5.  The  reader  should  however  as  he  proceeds  from  sentence  to 
sentence  make  a  note  of  whatever- strikes  his  attention. 

6.  The  good  which  you  do  may  not  be  lost  though  it  may  be  for- 
gotten. 

7.  Good  deeds  though  forgotten  are  not  in  every  case  lost. 

8.  John  went  last  year  to  Canton  where  he  is  doing  they  say  an 
excellent  business. 

9.  If  wishes  were  horses  beggars  might  ride. 

10.  Unless  you  bridle  your  tongue  you  will  assuredly  be  shut  out 
from  good  society. 

11.  We  should  in  all  probability  be  ashamed  of  much  that  we  boast 
of  could  the  world  see  our  real  motive. 

12.  Attend  that  you  may  receive  instruction. 

13.  You  may  go  home  as  soon  as  you  like. 

14.  One  object  of  studying  Rhetoric  is  that  we  may  compose  better. 

15.  He  studied  Rhetoric  in  order  that  he  might  become  a  better 
writer. 

Questions.  Which  of  the  commas  used  in  Note  1  can  be  explained 
by  any  of  the  rules  given  thus  far  ?  —  which  in  Note  2  ?  —  which  in 
Note  3  ?  — which  in  Note  4? 


Rule  4.  Relative  Clauses.  —  A  clause  introduced  by  a 
relative  pronoun  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence  by  commas,  unless  the  clause  is  restrictive  in  its 
character.* 

•  The  teacher  should  at  this  point  take  particular  pains  in  accustoming  the  student 
to  di«tingui»h  clearly  and  promptly  between  clauses  which  are,  and  those  which  aro 


PUNCTUATION  —  COMMA.  25 

Note  1.  See  Note  under  Rule  2,  for  an  explanation  of  what  ia  meant  by  restrictive 
clauses. 

Note  2.  A  comma  should  be  put  before  the  relative,  even  when  used  restrictively, 
if  it  is  immediately  followed  by  a  word  or  a  phrase  inclosed  in  commas ;  as,  "  Those 
friends,  who,  in  the  native  vigor  of  his  powers,  perceived  the  dawn  of  Robertson's  future 
eminence,  were  at  length  amply  rewarded." 

Note  3.  A  comma  should  be  put  before  the  relative,  even  when  used  restrictively, 
if  several  words  intervene  between  it  and  its  grammatical  antecedent ;  as,  "  He  preachea 
most  eloquently,  who  leads  the  most  pious  life."  In  like  manner,  of  which  and  of 
whom,  even  when  used  restrictively,  are  preceded  by  a  comma;  as,  "No  thought  can 
be  just,  of  which  good  sense  is  not  the  groundwork." 

Note  4.  When  the  relative  has  for  its  antecedent  several  succeeding  nouns  or 
clauses,  it  should  be  separated  from  them  by  a  comma,  even  though  the  relative  clause 
is  restrictive.  Thus:  " There  are  fruits  which  neA'er  ripen."  " There  are  apples,  pears, 
and  plums,  which  never  ripen."  Here,  if  the  comma  after  "plums"  is  omitted,  th< 
fact  of  never  ripening  is  restricted  to  plums,  and  the  meaning  is,  "There  are  appleS; 
there  are  pears,  and  there  are  unripening  plums."  But,  by  inserting  the  comma,  thi 
restriction  is  made  to  refer  to  all  three  of  these  objects. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  A  fierce  spirit  of  rivalry  which  is  at  all  times  a  dangerous  pas- 
sion  had  now  taken  full  possession  of  him. 

2.  The  spirit  which  actuated  him  was  a  thirst  for  vengeance. 

3.  The  man  of  letters  who  has  constantly  before  him  examples  of 
excellence  ought  himself  to  be  a  pattern  of  excellence. 

4.  Books  which  are  the  repositories  of  knowledge  are  an  indispen' 
sable  part  of  the  furniture  of  a  house. 

5.  Every  teacher  must  love  a  pupil  who  is  docile. 

6.  The  child  was  much  attached  to  his  teacher  who  loved  him  dearly. 

7.  Patriotism  consists  in  loving  the  country  in  which  we  are  born- 

8.  The  eye  which  sees  all  things  is  unseen  to  itself. 

9.  Death  is  the  season  which  tests  our  principles. 

10.  Civil  war  is  an  awful  evil  of  which  however  history  furnishes 
many  examples. 

11.  No  man  can  be  thoroughly  proficient  in  navigation  who  ha» 
never  been  at  sea. 

12.  The  father  of  Epic  poetry  is  Homer  who  has  given  us  in  the 
Iliad  the  story  of  Troy  divine. 

13.  The  powers  which  now  move  the  world  are  the  printing-press 
and  the  telegraph. 

not,  restrictive.  "It  is  barbarous  to  injure  men  who  have  shown  us  a  kindness." 
Here  the  first  part  of  the  sentence  lays  down  a  proposition,  and  the  relative  clause 
restricts  the  meaning  to  certain  persons.  "  Give  time  to  the  study  of  nature,  whose 
laws  are  all  deeply  interesting."  Here  the  relative  clause  is  not  restrictive,  but  merely 
presents  an  additional  thought. 

8* 


26  COMPOSITION    AND    EHETORIC. 

14.  America  may  well  boast  of  her  Washington  whose  character 
and  fame  are  the  common  property  of  the  world. 

16.  The  man  who  uses  profane  language  condemns  the  man  who 
takes  his  neighbor's  property  though  both  in  the  eyes  of  God  are 
alike  guilty. 

Questions.  Which  of  the  commas  used  in  Note  2  can  be  explained 
by  any  of  the  rules  now  given? — which  in  Note  3? — which  in 
Note  4?  —  which  in  the  foot-note  ? 

S  Rule  5.  Co-ordinate  Clauses.  —  In  continued  sentences, 
the  several  co-ordinate  clauses  or  members,  if  simple  in  con- 
struction, are  separated  from  each  other  by  commas. 

Note  1.  If,  however,  these  co-ordinate  members  are  complex  and  involved,  especially 
if  they  have  commas  within  themselves,  the  members  should  be  separated  by  a  semi- 
colon ;  as,  "Crafty  men,  though  they  may  pretend  otherwise,  contemn  studies ;  simple 
men,  though  they  really  care  nothing  about  the  matter,  yet  pretend  to  admire  them ; 
wise  men  only  use  them." 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Crafty  men  contemn  studies  simple  men  admire  them  and  wise 
men  use  them. 

2.  Speak  as  you  mean  do  as  you  profess  perform  what  you  promise. 

3.  Cassar  was  dead  the  senators  were  dispersed  all  Rome  was  in 
confusion. 

4.  France  was  again  reduced  to  its  original  geographical  bounda- 
ries and  England  after  a  struggle  of  twenty  years  was  undisputed 
mistress  of  the  seas. 

5.  Modern  engineering  spans  whole  continents  tunnels  alike  moun- 
tains and  rivers  and  dykes  out  old  ocean  himself. 

Rule  6.  Grammatical  Expressions  in  the  same  Construc- 
tion. —  Grammatical  expressions  forming  a  series  in  the  same 
construction  should  be  separated  from  each  other,  and  from 
what  follows,  by  a  comma. 

Note  1.  A  grammatical  expression  is  a  collection  of  wonls,  having  some  grammatical 
dependence  and  connection,  but  not  containing  in  themselves  a  predicate. 

Note  2.  If  the  expressions  are  brief,  and  there  are  but  two  of  them,  connected  by 
and,  or,  or  nor,  no  comma  between  them  is  needed;  as,  "Hard  study  and  neglect  of 
exercise  impair  the  health."  If,  however,  the  two  connected  expressions  differ  ranch 
in  form,  it  is  better  to  set  them  off  by  commas ;  aa,  "  Hard  study,  and  the  entire  absence 
•f  attention  to  the  matter  of  diet,  bring  on  disease." 


PUNCTUATION  —  COMMA.  27 

Note  3.  If  the  series  of  expressions  brings  the  sentence  to  a  close,  the  last  of  them, 
of  course,  is  not  followed  by  a  comma,  but  by  a  period  or  some  other  point  greater 
than  a  comma.    See  foot-note,  p.  20. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Love  for  study^a  desire  to  do  right^ and  carefulness  in  the  choice 
of  friends,  are  important  traits  of  character. 

2.  To  cleanse  our  opinions  from  falsehood  our  hearts  from  malig- 
nity and  our  actions  from  vice  is  our  chief  concern. 

3.  Did  God  create  for  the  poor  a  coarser  earth  a  thinner  air  a 
paler  sky  ? 

4.  Infinite  space  endless  numbers  and  eternal  duration  fill  the 
mind  with  great  ideas. 

5.  On  the  rich  and  the  eloquent  on  nobles  and  priests  the  Puritans 
looked  down  with  contempt. 

Question.  What  commas  in  Rule  6,  and  in  Notes  1  and  2,  can  be 
explained  by  any  of  the  rules  thus  far  given  ? 

iv  -^      ^^ 

KuLE  7.  Words  in  the  same  Construction.— When  words 
of  the  same  kind  follow  each  other  in  a  series,  in  the  same 
grammatical  construction,  the  following  three  cases  may 
arise : 

1.  There  may  be  a  conjunction  between  each  two  of  the  words; 
as,  "Industry  and  honesty  and  frugality  and  temperance  are  among 
the  cardinal  virtues."  In  this  case,  none  of  the  words  in  the  series 
are  to  be  separated  by  commas. 

2.  The  conjunction  may  be  omitted,  except  between  the  last  two 
of  the  words;  as,  "  Industry,' honesty,  frugality,  and  temperance  are 
among  the  cardinal  virtues."  In  this  case,  all  the  words  are  to  be 
separated  from  each  other  by  commas. 

3.  The  conjunction  may  be  omitted  between  the  last  two  words,  as 
well  as  between  the  'others  ;  as,  "  Industry,  honesty,  frugality,  tem- 
perance, are  among  the  cardinal  virtues."  In  this  case,  not  only  all 
the  words  of  the  series  are  to  be  separated  from  each  other  by  com- 
mas, but  a  comma  is  to  be  inserted  also  after  the  last  word,  to  sepa- 
rate it  from  what  follows. 

.Note  1.  A  comma  is  not  in  any  case  to  be  inserted  after  the  last  word  of  a  series, 
if  what  follows  is  only  a  single  word ;  as,  "  The  good  will  form  hereafter  stronger- 
purer,  holier  ties." 
Note  2.  In  suoh  expressrions  as  "  A  beautiful  white  horse,"  no  comma  should  bo 


28  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

inserted  between  the  two  adjectives,  because  they  are  not  in  the  same  grammatical 
construction.  " White "  belongs  to  " horse "  merely.  "Beautiful"  belongs  properly 
to  the  whole  expression  "white  horse."  It  is  not  simply  the  "horse,"  but  the  "white 
horse  "  that  is  said  to  be  beautiful. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  He  was  brave  and  pious  and  patriotic  in  all  his  aspirations. 

2.  He  was  brave  pious  and  patriotic  in  all  his  aspirations. 

3.  He  was  brave  pious  patriotic  in  all  his  aspirations. 

4.  He  was  a  brave  pious  patriotic  man. 

5.  Aright  aleft  above  below  he  whirled  the  rapid  sword. 

6.  The  address  was  beautifully  elegantly  and  forcibly  Vritten. 

7.  Can  flattery  soothe  the  dull  cold  ear  of  death  ? 

8.  Within  around  and  above  us  we  see  traces  of  the  Creator's 
hand. 

9.  We  are  fearfully  wonderfully  made. 

10.  The  sun  the  moon  the  planets  the  stars  revolve. 

11.  The  sun  the  moon  the  planets  the  stars  are  all  in  motion. 

12.  The  sun  the  moon  the  planets  and  the  stars  are  all  in  motion. 

13.  Virtue  religion  is  the  one  thing  needful. 

14.  It  is  a  useful  accomplishment  to  be  able  to  read  write  spell  or 
cipher  with  accuracy. 

15.  Woe  woe  to  the  rider  that  tramples  them  down. 

16.  Aristotle  Hamilton  Whately  and  McCosh  are  high  authorities 
in  logic. 

17.  Lend  lend  your  wings. 

18.  The  earth  the  air  the  water  teem  with  life. 

19.  Grand  ideas  and  sentiments  elevate  and  ennoble  the  mind. 

Question.  Which  of  the  commas  used  in  the  Rule  and  the  Notes 
can  be  explained  by  the  Rules  already  given? 

Rule  8.  Words  or  Phrases  in  Pairs.  —  A  series  of  words 
or  phrases  in  pairs  take  a  comma  after  each  pair. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Anarchy  and  confusion  poverty  and  distress  desolation  and  ruin 
are  the  consequences  of  civil  war. 

2.  Truth  and  integrity  kindness  and  modesty  reverence  and  devo- 
tion were  all  remarked  in  him. 

3.  The  poor  and  the  rich  the  weak  and  the  strong  the  young  and 
the  old  have  one  common  Father. 


/ 


PUNCTUATION —COMMA.  29 

4.  To  have  and  to  holdifor  better  for  worse  .for  richer  for  poorer 
in  sickness  and  in  health  to  love  and  to  cherish. 

5.  Eating  or  drinking  laboring  or  sleeping  let  us  do  all  in  modera- 
tion. Si 

Rule  9.  Nouns  in  Apposition.  —  When  a  noun  is  in  ap- 
position to  s^me  preceding  noun  or  pronoun,  and  lias  an 
adjunct  consisting  of  several  words,  the  said  noun  and  all 
its  connected  words  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence  by  a  comma  before  and  a  comma  after. 

Note  1.  This  construction  is  sometimes  inverted,  tlie  nonn  in  apposition,  with  its 
adjuncts,  being  placed  first.  In  that  case,  this  preceding  noun  with  its  adjuncts  should 
be  separated  from  the  main  noun  or  pronoun  by  a  comma;  as,  "Himself  the  greatest 
of  agitators.  Napoleon  became  the  most  repressive  of  tyrants." 

Note  2.  Where  the  noim  put  in  apposition  stands  alone,  or  has  only  an  article  before 
it,  no  comma  is  required  between  said  noun  and  the  word  with  which  it  is  in  appo- 
sition; as,  "Paul  the  apostle  was  a  man  of  energy."     "Mason  Brothers." 

Note  3.  A  noun  following  another  as  a  synonym,  or  as  giving  additional  Illustration 
to  the  thought,  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma  before  and  after; 
a£  "  The  word  Poet,  meaning  a  maker,  a  creator,  is  derived  from  the  Greek." 

Note  4.  When  a  noun  is  predicated  of  the  noun  or  pronoun  with  which  it  is  in  appo- 
sition, no  comma  is  required  between  them ;  as,  "They  have  just  elected  him  Governor 
of  the  State." 

Note  5.  After  several  words  containing  a  description  of  a  person  or  thing,  if  the 
name  of  the  person  or  thing  is  added,  it  should  be  set  off  from  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence by  commas;  as,  "The  greatest  of  poets  among  the  ancients,  Homer,  like  the 
greatest  among  the  moderns,  Milton,  was  blind." 

Note  6.  A  title,  whether  abbreviated  or  expressed  in  full,  when  annexed  to  a  noun 
or  pronoun,  must  be  set  off  by  commas;  as,  "At  the  request  of  the  Rt.  Rev.  W.  H. 
Odenheimer,  D.  D.,  the  ceremony  was  postponed." 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  We  the  people  of  the  United  States  do  hereby  ordain  and  estab- 
lish this  Constitution. 

2.  Paul  the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles  was  a  man  of  energy. 

3.  Virgil  the  chief  poet  among  the  Eomans  was  fond  of  rural  life. 

4.  The  poet  Shakspeare  is  now  considered  the  greatest  of  writers 
ancient  or  modern. 

5.  Newton  the  great  mathematician  was  a  devout  believer  in  Chris- 
tianity. 

6.  Spenser  the  author  of  the  Faery  Queen  lived  in  the  time  of 
Queen  Elizabeth. 

7.  Strength  energy  is  what  you  want. 

3 


s^. 


30  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

8.  Plutarch  calls  anger  a  brief  madness. 

9.  Mere  learning  does  not  make  a  man  an  orator. 

10.  To  call  a  man  a  fool  is  not  to  make  him  one. 

11.  The  chief  work  of  Chaucer  the  Canterbury  Tales  suggested  to 
Longfellow  the  plan  of  the  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn. 

12.  John  Chapman  Doctor  of  Medicine.     John  Chapman  M.D. 

13.  The  wisest  of  the  ancients  Socrates  wrote  nothing, 

14.  Much  stress  was  laid  by  the  greatest  of  the  ancient  orators 
Demosthenes  upon  delivery, 

15.  A  man  of  prodigious  learning  he  was  a  pattern  of  modesty. 


KuLE  10.  The  Vocative  Case. — A  noun  in  the  vocative 
case,  or  case  independent,  as  it  is  called,  together  with  its 
adjunct  words,  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence by  a  comma,  or  commas. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Accept  my  dear  young  friends  this  expression  of  my  regard. 

2.  I  beg  sir  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  favor. 

3.  I  rise  Mr.  President  to  a  point  of  order. 

4.  Show  pity  Lord  !    0  Lord  forgive  ! 

5.  Remember  sir  you  cannot  have  it. 

EuLE  11.  The  Case  Absolute. —  A  clause  containing  the 
construction  known  as  the  case  absolute  should  be  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma,  or  commas. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Then  came  Jesus  the  doors  being  shut  and  stood  in  the  midst. 

2.  A  state  of  ease  is  generally  speaking  more  attainable  than  a 
state  of  pleasure. 

3.  Shame  lost  all  virtue  is  lost. 

4.  His  father  being  dead  the  prince  ascended^ the  throne. 

5.  I  being  in  the  way  the  Lord  led  me  to  the  house  of  my  master'! 
brother. 

Rule  12.  Inverted  Clauses  and  Expressions.— A  clause, 
or  a  grammatical  expression,  that  is  inverted,  or  transposed 


PUNCTUATION  —  COMMA.  31 

from  its  natural  order,  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence by  a  comma. 

Note  1.  The  infinitive  mood,  especially  when  used  to  express  object  or  design,  is 
often  inverted  in  this  way;  as,  "To  obtain  an  education,  he  was  willing  to  make  sac- 
rifices." The  expressions  To  proceed,  to  conclude,  &c.,  when  placed  at  the  beginning 
of  a  paragraph,  and  referring  to  the  whole  of  it,  should  be  separated  from  what  follows 
by  a  colon. 

Note  2.  In  making  alphabetical  catalogues,  compound  names,  such  as  John  Quincy 
Adams,  are  usually  inverted,  that  is,  the  last  word  in  the  name,  being  the  principal 
one,  is  put  first,  and  is  then  separated  from  the  other  parts  of  the  name  by  a  comma; . 
as,  Adams,  John  Quincy. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Awkward  in  person  he  was  ill  adapted  to  gain  respect. 

2.  Of  all  our  senses  sight  is  the  most  important. 

3.  To  supply  the  deficiency  he  resorted  to  a  shameful  trick. 

4.  Living  in  filth  the  poor  cease  to  respect  one  another. 
6.  To  confess  the  truth  I  never  greatly  admired  him. 

EuLE  13.  Ellipsis  of  the  Verb.  —  In  continued  sentences, 
having  a  common  verb,  which  is  expressed  in  one  of  the 
members,  but  omitted  in  the  others,  the  ellipsis  of  the  verb 
is  marked  by  a  comma. 

Examples  for  Practice.  '' 

1.  Reading  maketh  a  full  man;  conference  a  ready  man;  writing 
an  exact  man. 

2.  Homer  was  the  greater  genius ;  Virgil  the  better  artist. 

3.  Semiramis  built  Babylon ;  Dido  Carthage ;  and  Romulus  Rome. 

EuLE  14.  Short  Quotations.  —  A  short  quotation,  or  a 
sentence  resembling  a  quotation,  should  be  preceded  by  a 
comma. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Patrick  Henry  began  his  celebrated  speech  by  saying  "It  ia 
natural  to  man  to  indulge  the  illusions  of  hope." 

2.  A  good  rule  in  education  is  Learn  to  be  slow  in  forming  your 
opinions. 

3.  I  say  There  is  no  such  thing  as  human  perfection. 

4.  Some  one  justly  remarks  "It  is  a  great  loss  to  losq  an  affliction.*' 


32  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Rule  15.  Punctuation  of  Numeral  Figures. — Figures  ex- 
tending to  four  or  more  characters  are  pointed  with  a  comma 
before  every  three  from  the  end. 

Note  1.  Dates  are  not  pointed. 

Note  2.  Numbers  expressed  in  words  are  left  unpointed. 

Examples  for  Practice. 
1.  The  population  of  China  was,  in  1743,  according  to  the  French 
missionaries,    150  029  855;    in   1825,    according   to   Dr.  Morrison, 
352  866  002. 

[N.B.  Put  the  same  in  words.] 


SECTION  II. 
The  Semicolon. 


The  Semicolon  marks  a  division  of  a  sentence  somewhat 
larger  and  more  complex  than  that  marked  by  a  comma. 

Note.  The  word  is  compounded  of  semi,  half,  and  colon,  and  means  a  division  half  as 
large  as  the\colon. 


KuLE  1.  Subdivided  Members  in  Compound  Sentences. — 
When  a  sentence  consists  of  two  members,  and  these  mem- 
bers, or  either  of  them,  are  themselves  subdivided  by  com- 
mas, the  larger  divisions  of  the  sentence  should  be  separated 
by  a  semicolon. 

Note  1.  If  the  connection  between  these  members  is  close,  the  semicolon  is  not  used. 
The  word  "  when,"  introducing  the  first  member,  indicates  this  kind  of  close  connection, 
and  prevents  ordinarily  the  use  of  the  semicolon.  "As,"  and  "so,"  introducing  the 
two  members,  indicate  a  comparatively  loose  connection,  and  authorize  the  use  of  the 
semicolon,  if  the  other  conditions  exist;  as,  "As  we  perceive  the  shadow  to  have 
moved,  but  did  not  perceive  it  moving;  so  our  advances  in  learning,  consisting  of 
Buch  minute  steps,  are  porcoivable  only  by  the  distance." 

The  Rule  itself  furnishes  an  example  of  the  semicolon  omitted  in  a  sentence  begin- 
ning with  "when." 

Note  2.  When  the  members  are  considerably  complex,  they  are  Bometimes  separated 


PUNCTUATION  —  SEMICOLON.  33 

by  a  semicolon,  even  though  not  subdivided  by  commas ;  as,  "  So  sad  and  dark  a  story 
is  scarcely  to  be  found  in  any  work  of  fiction ;  .and  we  are  little  disposed  to  envy  the 
moralist  who  can  read  it  without  being  softened," 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Sparre  was  sulky  and  perverse  because  he  was  a  citizen  of  a 
republic.  Sparre  the  Dutch  general  was  sulky  and  perverse  because 
according  to  Lord  Mahon  he  was  a  citizen  of  a  republic. 

2.  Bellasys  the  English  general  embezzled  the  stores  because  we 
suppose  he  was  the  subject  of  a  monarchy.  Bellasys  embezzled  the 
stores  because  he  was  the  subject  of  a  monarchy. 

3.  The  most  ridiculous  weaknesses  seemed  to  meet  in  the  wretched 
Solomon  of  Whitehall  pedantry  buffoonery  garrulity  low  curiosity 
the  most  contemptible  personal  cowardice. 

4.  Men  reasoned  better  for  example  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth  than 
in  the  time  of  Egbert  and  they  also  wrote  better  poetry. 

5.  Milton  was  like  Dante  a  statesman  and  a  lover  and  like  Dante 
he  had  been  unfortunate  in  ambition  and  in  love. 

6.  You  may  quit  the  field  of  business  though  not  the  field  of  dan- 
ger and  though  you  cannot  be  safe  you  may  cease  to  be  ridiculous. 

7.  This  is  an  inconsistency  which  more  than  anything  else  raises 
his  character  in  our  estimation  because  it  shows  how  many  private 
tastes  and  feelings  he  sacrificed  in  order  to  do  what  he  considered 
his  duty  to  mankind. 


Rule  2.  Clauses  and  Expressions  having  a  Common  De- 
pendence.—  When  several  clauses  or  grammatical  expressions 
of  similar  construction  follow  each  other  in  a  series,  all 
having  a  common  dependence  upon  some  other  clause,  they 
are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  semicolon,  and  from  the 
clause  on  which  they  all  depend,  by  a  comma. 

Example :  "  Philosophers  assert,  that  nature  is  unlimited  in  her  operations ;  that 
Bhe  has  inexhaustible  treasures  in  reserve ;  that  knowledge  will  always  be  progressive ; 
and  that  all  future  generations  will  continue  to  make  discoveries." 

Note.  If  the  clause  on  which  the  series  depends  comes  at  the  end  of  the  sentence,  it 
is  separated  from  the  series,  sometimes  by  a  colon,  and  sometimes  by  a  comma  fol- 
lowed by  a  dash.  Thus :  That  nature  is  unlimited  in  her  operations ;  that  she  has 
inexhaustible  treasures  in  reserve ;  that  knowledge  will  always  be  progressive ;  and 

4 


34  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

that  all  future  generations  will  continue  to  make  discoveries :  these  are  among  the 
assertions  of  philosophers. 

If  we  think  of  glory  in  the  field ;  of  wisdom  in  the  cabinet ;  of  the  purest  patri- 
otism ;  of  the  highest  integrity,  public  and  private  ;  of  morals  without  a  stain ;  of 
religious  feeling  without  intolerance  and  without  extravagance,  —  the  august  figure 
of  Washington  presents  itself  as  the  personation  of  all  these. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Mr.  Croker  is  perpetually  stopping  us  in  our  progress  through 
the  most  delightful  narrative  in  the  language  to  observe  that  really 
Dr.  Johnson  was  very  rude  that  he  talked  more  for  victory  than  for 
truth  that  his  taste  for  port  wine  with  capilliare  in  it  was  very  odd 
that  Boswell  was  impertinent  and  that  it  was  foolish  in  Mrs.  Thrale 
to  marry  the  music-master. 

2.  To  give  an  early  preference  to  honor  above  gain  when  they 
stand  in  competition  to  despise  every  advantage  which  cannot  be 
attained  without  dishonest  acts  to  brook  no  meanness  and  to  stoop  to 
no  dissimulations  are  the  indications  of  a  great  mind. 


KuLE  3.  Sentences  Connected  in  Meaning,  bnt  without 
Grammatical  Dependence.  —  When  several  sentences  follow 
each  other,  without  any  grammatical  dependence,  but  con- 
nected in  meaning,  they  are  usually  separated  from  each 
other  by  semicolons. 

Example:  "She  presses  her  child  to  her  heart;  she  drowns  it  in  her  tears;  her 
fancy  catches  more  than  an  angel's  tongue  can  describe." 

Note.  In  all  the  cases  which  come  under  this  Rule,  two  features  are  essential. 
First,  each  of  the  several  members  forming  the  continued  sentence  should  be  complete 
in  itself,  so  that  it  might  grammatically  stand  alone,  with  a  period  following.  Sec- 
ondly, these  several  members  should  have  some  underlying  thread  of  connection  in  the 
thought.  Authors  differ  in  regard  to  the  punctuation,  in  these  cases.  Some  insist  on 
separating  the  members  by  a  period.  By  such  a  course,  however,  we  lose  one  import' 
ant  means  of  marking  nice  changes  of  thought.  Others  use  the  colon,  instead  of  the 
semicolon,  for  these  purposes.  This  was  the  case  formerly  much  more  than  now. 
The  best  usage  at  present  is,  to  employ  a  period,  a  colon,  a  semicolon,  or  a  comma, 
according  to  the  degree  of  complexity  or  simplicity  of  the  several  sentences,  and  the 
degree  of  closeness  or  looseness  of  connection  in  the  thought.  If  the  connection  is 
close,  and  the  successive  members  are  short  and  simple,  the  comma  is  used ;  if  the 
members  are  somewhat  longer,  and  especially  if  any  of  them  are  at  all  complex,  the 
semicolon  is  used ;  if,  in  addition  to  this,  the  connection  in  the  thought  is  but  faint, 
the  colon  is  used ;  and  when  the  connection  almost  disappears,  the  period  is  used. 
The  connection  in  the  thought  does  not  disappear  entirely  until  the  close  of  th« 
paragraph. 


PUNCTUATION  —  SEMICOLON.  35 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Stones  grow  vegetables  grow  and  live  animals  grow  live  and  feel. 

2.  The  summer  is  over  and  gone  the  winter  is  here  with  its  frosts 
and  snow  the  wind  howls  in  the  chimney  at  night  the  beast  in  the 
forest  forsakes  its  lair  the  birds  of  the  air  seek  the  habitation  of  men. 

3.  The  temples  are  profaned  the  soldier's  oath  resounds  in  the 
house  of  God  the  marble  pavement  is  trampled  by  iron  hoofs  horses 
neigh  beside  the  altar. 

Rule  4.  The  Clause  Additional  —  When  a  sentence  com- 
plete in  itself  is  followed  by  a  clause  which  is  added  by  way 
of  inference,  explanation,  or  enumeration,  the  additional 
clause,  if  formally  introduced  by  some  connecting  word,  is 
separated  from  the  main  body  of  the  sentence  by  a  semi- 
colon ;  but,  if  merely  appended  without  any  such  connecting 
word,  .by  a  colon. 

1.  Apply  yourself  to  study;  for  it  will  redound  to  your  honor. 

2.  Apply  yourself  to  study:  it  will  redound  to  your  honor. 

Note  1.  Some  of  the  connecting  words  most  commonly  used  for  this  purpose  are 
namely,  for,  hut,  yet,  to  vrit,  &c. 

Note  2.  The  word  as,  when  used  to  connect  an  example  with  a  rule,  should  be  pre- 
ceded by  a  semicolon  and  followed  by  a  comma. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Greece  has  given  us  three  great  historians  namely  Herodotus 
Xenophon  and  Thucydides. 

2.  Some  writers  divide  the  history  of  the  world  into  four  ages  viz. 
the  golden^ge  the  silver  age  the  bronze  age  and  the  iron  age. 

3.  Some  writers  divide  the  history  of  the  world  into  four  ages  the 
golden  age  the  silver  age  the  bronze  age  and  the  iron  age. 

4.  Cicero  in  his  treatise  on  morals  enumerates  four  cardinal  vir- 
tues to  wit  Fortitude  Temperance  Justice  and  Prudence. 


EuLE  5.  A  General  Term  in  Apposition  to  the  Par- 
ticulars under  it.  —  When  a  general  terra  stands  in  appo- 
sition to  several  others  which  are  particulars  under  it,  the 
general  term  is  separated  from  the  particulars  by  a  semi- 


36  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

jolon,  and  the  particulars  are  separated  from  each  other  by 
commas. 

Note.  If  the  enumeration  of  the  particulars  is  given  with  much  formality,  so  as  to 
make  the  several  expressions  complex,  containing  commas  of  their  own,  then  these 
particulars  must  be  separated  from  the  general  term  by  a  colon,  and  from  each  other 
by  semicolons ;  as,  — 

Adjective  Pronouns  are  divided  into  three  classes ;  Distributive,  Demonstrative,  and 
Indefinite. 

Adjective  Pronouns  are  divided  into  these  three  classes:  first,  the  Distributive, 
•which  are  four  in  number ;  secondly, the  Demonstrative,  which  are  four;  and  tliirdly, 
the  Indefinite,  which  are  nine. 


SECTION   III. 

The  Colon. 

The  Colon  marks  a  division  of  a  sentence  more  nearly- 
complete  than  that  of  a  semicolon. 

Note  1.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Greek  ku^ov  (colon),  a  limb,  or  member. 
Note  2.  The  principal  uses  of  the  colon  have  already  been  given  in  Rules  4  and  5. 

Rule  1.  Greater  Divisions  of  Complex  Sentences.— 
When  the  minor  divisions  of  a  complex  sentence  contain  a 
semicolon,  the  greater  divisions  should  be  separated  by  a 
colon ;  thus,  — 

As  we  perceive  the  shadow  to  have  moved  along  the  dial,  but  did  not  perceive  it 
moving  ;  and  it  appears  that  the  grass  has  grown,  though  nobody  ever  saw  it  grow  : 
80  the  advances  we  make  in  knowledge,  as  they  consist  of  such  insensible  steps,  are 
only  perceivable  by  the  distance.  ♦ 

Rule  2.  Before  a  Quotation.  —  A  colon  is  used  before  a 
direct  quotation  ;  as, 

Speaking  of  party.  Pope  makes  this  remark:  "There  never  was  any  party,  faction, 
■ect,  or  cabal  whatsoever,  in  which  the  most  ignorant  were  not  the  most  violent." 

Note  1.  If  the  quotation  is  of  considerable  length,  consisting  of  several  sentencen, 
or  begins  a  new  paragraph,  it  should  be  preceded  by  both  a  colon  and  a  dash ;  as,  - 

At  the  close  of  the  meeting,  the  president  rose  and  said :  — 

"Ladies  and  Gentlemen,  it  is  with  extreme  reluctance  that  I  address  you  on  this 
oceaaion,"  Ac. 


PUNCTUATION  —  COLON.  37 

Note  2.  If  the  quotation  is  merely  some  short  saying,  a  comma  is  suflBcient ;  as,  Dr. 
Thomas  Brown  says,  "  The  benevolent  spirit  is  as  universal  as  the  miseries  which  are 
capable  of  being  relieved." 


Rule  3.  Yes  and  No.  —  The  words  yes  and  no,  when  in 
answer  to  a  question,  should  be  followed  by  a  colon,  pro- 
vided the  words  which  follow  are  a  continuation  or  repeti- 
tion of  the  answer ;  as,  — 

"  Can  these  words  add  vigor  to  your  hearts  ?  Yes :  they  can  do  it ;  they  have  often 
done  it." 

Note.  Yes  and  no  are  often  followed  by  some  noun  in  the  vocative  case,  or  case  inde- 
pendent ;  as,  "  Yes,  sir,"  "  Yes,  my  lords,"  &c.  In  such  cases,  the  colon  should  come 
after  the  vocative ;  as,  "  Yes,  sir :  they  can  do  it."  "  Yes,  my  lords :  I  am  amazed  at 
his  lordship's  speech." 

Rule  4.  Title -Pages.  —  Sometimes  the  main  title  of  a 
book  is  followed  by  an  alternative  or  explanatory  title,  in 
apposition.  If  this  alternative  title  is  introduced  by  the  con- 
junction or,  a  semicolon  should  precede  the  or,  and  a  comma 
follow  it;  but  if  or  is  not  used,  then  the  alternative  title 
should  be  separated  from  the  main  one  by  a  colon ;  as,  — 

Literature  in  Letters ;  or.  Manners,  Art,  Criticism,  Biography,  &c. 
English  Grammar:  An  Exposition  of  the  Principles  and  Usages  of  the  English 
Language. 

Note.  At  the  bottom  of  a  title  page  it  is  customary  to  put  the  place  of  publication, 
the  name  of  the  publishers,  and  the  year,  in  the  order  just  named ;  and  to  insert  a 
colon  after  the  name  of  the  place,  a  comma  after  the  name  of  the  publishers,  and  a 
period  at  the  end.    Example.  Philadelphia:  Eldredge  &  Brother,  1868. 


Examples  for  Praetiee  on  the  Rules  for  the  Comma,  the 
Semicolon,  and.  the  Colon. 

[To  THE  Student.  Give  the  Rule  for  each  Comma,  Semicolon,  or  Colon  that  you  find 
in  the  examples  which  are  punctuated ;  and  insert  these  points  where  needed,  giving 
the  Rules  for  the  same,  in  the  examples  not  punctuated.  In  the  unpunctuated  sen- 
tences, this  mark  o  is  inserted  at  the  places  where  a  point  of  some  kind  is  due.] 

1,  No  one  denies  that  there  are  greater  poets  than  Horace ;  and 
much  has  been  said  in  disparagement  even  of  some  of  the  merits 
most  popularly  assigned  to  him,  by  scholars  who  have,  nevertheless, 
devoted  years  of  laborious  study  to  the  correction  of  his  text  or  the 
elucidation  of  his  meaning. 

2.  Satire  always  tends  to  dwarf  o  and  it  cannot  fail  to  carica- 

4* 


38»  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

ture  o  but  poetry  does  nothing  o  if  it  does  not  tend  to  enlarge  and 
exalt  o  and  if  it  does  not  seek  rather  to  beautify  than  deform. 

3.  When  he  invites  Tyndaris  to  his  villa,  the  spot  is  brought  before 
the  eye:  the  she-goats  browsing  amid  the  arbute  and  wild  thyme; 
the  pebbly  slopes  of  Ustica;  the  green  nooks  sheltered  from  the 
dog-star ;  the  noon-day  entertainment ;  the  light  wines  and  the  lute. 

4.  The  fundamental  characteristic  of  man  is  spiritual  hunger  o  the 
universe  of  thought  and  matter  is  spiritual  food. 

6.  He  feeds  on  Nature  o  he  feeds  on  ideas  o  he  feeds  o  through 
art  o  science  o  literature  o  and  history  o  on  the  acts  and  thoughts 
of  other  minds. 

6.  It  must  be  observed  o  that  in  suggesting  these  processes  o  I 
assign  them  no  date  o  nor  do  I  even  insist  upon  their  order. 

7.  This  is  an  iambic  line  in  which  the  first  foot  is  formed  of  a  word 
and  a  part  of  a  word  o  the  second  and  third  o  of  parts  taken  from 
the  body  or  interior  of  a  word  o  the  fourth  o  of  a  part  and  a 
whole  o  the  fifth  o  of  two  com,plete  words. 

8.  Melissa  o  like  the  bee  o  gathers  honey  from  every  weed  o  while 
Arachne  o  like  the  spider  o  sucks  poison  from  the  fairest  flowers. 

9.  The  present  life  is  not  wholly  prosaic  o  precise  o  tame  o  and 
finite  o  to  the  gifted  eye  o  it  abounds  in  the  poetic. 

10.  Are  these  to  be  conquered  by  all  Europe  united  ?  No  o  sir  o 
no  united  nation  can  be  o  that  has  the  spirit  to  resolve  not  to  be 
conquered. 

11.  Be  our  plain  answer  this  o  The  throne  we  honor  is  the  people's 
choice  o  the  laws  we  reverence  are  our  bra^e  fathers'  legacy  o  the 
faith  we  follow  teaches  us  to  live  in  bonds  of  charity  with  all  man- 
kind o  and  die  with  hope  of  bliss  beyond  the  grave. 

12.  The  discourse  consisted  of  two  parts  o  in  the  first  was  shown 
<he  necessity  of  exercise  o  in  the  second  o  the  advantages  that  would 
result  from  it. 


'.^^ 


PUNCTUATION  —  PERIOD.  69 

SECTION    IV. 

The  Period. 
The  Period  marks  the  completion  of  the  sentence. 

Note.  The  word  Period  is  derived  from  the  Greek  TzeploSo;  (periodos),  a  circuit,  and 
means  primarily  anything  rounded  or  brought  to  completion.  It  was  the  first  point 
introduced. 

Rule  1.  Complete  Sentences. — Sentences  which  are  com- 
plete in  sense,  and  not  connected  in  construction  with  what 
follows,  and  not  exclamatory  or  interrogative  in  their  char- 
acter, should  be  followed  by  a  period. 

Note  1.  Sentences,  though  connected  by  a  conjunction,  are  sometimes  separated  by 
a  period,  if  the  parts  are  long  and  complex,  and  are  severally  complete  in  them- 
selves; as, — 

"  Other  men  may  have  led,  on  the  whole,  greater  and  more  impressive  lives  than  he ; 
other  men,  acting  on  their  fellows  through  the  same  medium  of  speech  that  he  used, 
may  have  expended  a  greater  power  of  thought,  and  achieved  a  greater  intellectual 
effort,  in  one  consistent  direction  ;  other  men,  too  (though  this  is  very  questionable), 
may  have  continued  to  issue  the  matter  which  they  did  address  to  the  world,  in  more 
compact  and  artistic  shapes.  But  no  man  that  ever  lived  said  such  splendid  extem- 
pore things  on  all  subjects  universally ;  no  man  that  ever  lived  had  the  faculty  of 
pouring  out,  on  all  occasions,  such  a  flood  of  the  richest  and  deepest  language." 

It  is  questionable,  however  jyhether  even  in  this  case  a  colon  would  not  be  the 
proper  point. 

Note  2.  The  conjunctions  and,  hut,  for,  &c.,  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  do  not 
always  indicate  that  degree  of  connection  with  what  precedes  which  should  prevent 
the  use  of  the  period  before  them.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  the  Bible.  (Luke  23 : 
27,  28,  29.)  "And  there  followed  him  a  great  company  of  people,  and  of  women, 
which  also  bewailed  and  lamented  him.  But  Jesus  turning  unto  them  said,  Daughters 
of  Jerusalem,  weep  not  for  me,  but  weep  for  yourselves,  and  for  your  children.  For, 
behold,  the  days  are  coming,  in  the  which  they  shall  say,"  Ac. 

Rule  2.  After  Titles,  &C.  —  A  period  should  be  used 
after  the  title,  or  any  of  the  headings,  of  a  book  ;  after  the 
author's  name  and  titles,  on  the  title-page ;  after  the  address 
of  a  person,  on  a  letter  or  note ;  and  after  each  signature  to 
a  letter  or  other  document. 

Note  1.  A  title-page  consists  usually  of  three  parts,  each  ending  in  a  period.  These 
are,  1.  The  title  of  the  book ;  2.  The  name  of  the  author,  with  any  titles  of  honor  or 


40  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

office  that  may  be  appended  to  it ;  3.  The  name  of  the  publisher,  with  the  date  and 
place  of  publication.  Example.  A  Treatise  on  Meteorology,  with  a  Collection  of 
Meteorological  Tables.  By  Elias  Loomis,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  and 
Astronomy  in  Yale  College,  and  Author  of  a  Course  of  Mathematics.  New  York : 
Harper  &  Brothers,  1868. 

Note  2.  In  addressing  a  letter,  the  residence,  if  given,  is  a  part  of  the  address. 
There  should  be  a  comma  between  the  several  parts,  and  a  period  at  the  end  of  the 
whole  address.    Ex.  John  Simpson,  21  Green  Street,  Philadelphia. 


Rule  3.  After  Abbreviations.  —  A  period  is  used  after 
all  abbreviated  words. 

Note  1.  The  most  common  method  of  abbreviation  is  to  use  the  first  letter  of  a 
word  for  the  whole  word,  as  B.  Franklin  for  Benjamin  Franklin.  Sometimes,  in 
abbreviating  the  word,  the  first  letter  is  doubled;  as,  p.  for  page,  pp.  for  pages,  M. 
for  Monsieur,  MM.  for  Messieurs.  In  such  cases,  a  period  is  not  inserted  between  the 
two  letters  which  represent  the  plural  of  one  word.  This  explains  why  there  is  no 
period  between  the  two  L's  in  the  title  LL.D.  (Legum  Doctor),  the  LL.  standing  fof* 
one  word  in  the  plural,  and  the  D.  for  the  other  word  in  the  singular.  Sometimes  a 
word  is  abbreviated  by  taking  the  first  two  or  three  letters,  as  Eng.  for  England ; 
sometimes  by  taking  the  first  letter  and  the  last,  as  Wm.  for  William,  Ca.  for  Cali- 
fornia; sometimes  by  taking  the  first  letter  and  some  leading  letter  in  the  middle  of 
the  word,  as  Mo.  for  Slissouri,  MS.  for  manuscript.  In  these  cases,  the  period  is  to  be 
used  only  at  the  end  of  the  combined  letters.  In  the  case  last  cited,  the  last  letter  of 
the  combination  is  doubled  when  the  word  is  plural;  as,  MS.  manuscript,  MSS. 
manuscripts. 

Note  2.  When  an  abbreviated  word  comes  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  use  two  periods.  One  point  is  sufficient  to  mark  both  the  abbreviation  and  th» 
end  of  the  sentence.  But  if  the  construction  requires  |paac  other  point,  as  the  comma, 
semicolon,  colon,  interrogation,  &c.,  both  points  must  be  inserted,  one  to  mark  the 
grammatical  construction,  the  other  to  mark  the  abbreviation  ;  as,  "  lie  reported  the 
death  of  John  Chapman,  M.D."  "John  Chapman,  M.D.,  at  the  early  age  of  twenty- 
four,  was  carried  oif  by  disease." 

Note  3.  When  two  or  more  abbreviated  titles  follow  each  other,  they  must  be  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  commas,  just  as  they  would  be,  if  written  out  in  full.  Thus  : 
"  Thomas  Sumner,  Doctor  of  Divinity,  Doctor  of  Laws,  Bishop  of  London,"  abbrevi- 
ated, becomes,  "  Thomas   Sumner,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Bp.  of  London." 

Note  4.  Proper  names  are  sometimes  permanently  shortened,  the  short  form  being 
meant,  not  as  an  ordinary  abbreviation,  but  as  the  real  and  true  name.  This  was  the 
case  with  the  celebrated  dramatist,  Ben  Jonson.  We  have  analogous  and  more  familiar 
instances  in  Ned  Buntline,  Bill  Smith,  Tom  Jones,  &c.  In  such  cases,  no  period  should 
be  Inserted  to  mark  abbreviation. 

Note  5.  In  like  manner,  various  other  abbreviations  which  are  in  very  familiar  use 
acquire  the  character  of  integral  words,  not  requiring  the  period  after  them  to  denote 
abbreviations.  They  become  nouns,  with  a  singular  and  a  plural.  Thus,  in  England, 
Cantab  (an  abridgment  of  Cantabrigionsis,  and  moaning  an  alumnus  of  Cambridge 
University),  has  become  a  noun,  the  body  of  the  alumni  being  called  Cantabe,  and  any 
one  of  them  a  Cantab.    In  like  manner,  we  have  Jap  and  Japs  for  Japanese,  consol  and 


PUNCTUATION  —  PEEIOD.  41 

consols  for  consolidated  loan  or  consolidated  loans  of  the  British  Gorernment,  three 
per  cents,  five  per  cents,  Ac* 

Note  6.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet,  a,  b,  c,  Ac,  A,  B,  C,  &c.,  when  used  in  geometry 
and  other  sciences  to  represent  quantities,  are  not  abbreviations,  and  should  not  be  so 
marked  by  the  insertion  of  a  period. 

Note  7.  When  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  used  to  represent  numerals,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  insert  a  period  at  the  end  of  each  completed  numeral ;  as.  Psalms  iv.,  xxi., 
Ixxxvi.,  cxix.,  &G.  When  dates  are  thus  expressed,  the  whole  number  is  separated 
into  periods  of  thousands,  hundreds,  and  the  portion  less  than  a  hundred;  as, 
M.DCCC.LXXI.  for  the  year  one  thousand,  eight  hundred,  and  seventy-one,  or  1871. 

Note  8.  The  Arabic  figures,  1,  2,  3,  Ac,  and  the  various  marks  used  by  printers,  as 
2  for  section,  f  for  paragraph,  Ac,  are  not  abbreviations,  but  stand  for  whole  words, 
and  therefore  do  not  require  the  period.  The  period  is  used,  however,  before  decimals, 
and  between  pounds  and  shillings ;  as,  £2.  10s.  4d.  sterling  is  worth  $13,719  at  the 
present  rate  of  exchange. 

Note  9.  The  words  4to,  8vo,  12mo,  Ac,  are  not  strictly  abbreviations,  the  figures 
representing  a  part  of  the  word.  If  the  letters  were  written  in  place  of  the  figures 
which  represent  them,  it  would  be  seen  at  once  that  the  words  are  complete,  quar-to, 
octa-\o,  duodeci-rao,  Ac.  Periods  therefore  are  not  required  for  such  words.  The  same 
rule  will  apply  to  Ist,  2dly,  3dly,  Ac. 


Examples  for  Practice. 

[To  THE  Student. — Give  the  Rule  for  each  comma,  semicolon,  colon,  or  period  that 
you  find  in  the  examples  which  are  punctuated;  and  insert  these  points  where 
needed,  giving  the  Rules  for  the  same,  in  the  examples  not  punctuated.  When  a  period 
is  used  to  mark  the  end  of  a  sentence,  the  word  following,  if  there  is  one,  should  begin 
with  a  capital.] 

1.  Excellence  in  conversation  depends  o  in  a  great  measure  o  on 
the  attainments  which  one  has  made  o  if  o  therefore©  education  is 
neglected  o  conversation  will  become  trifling  o  if  perverted  o  cor- 
rupting. 

2.  The  laws  of  Phoroneus  were  established  1807  B  Co  those  of 
Lycurgus  o  884  B  C  o  of  Draco  b  623  B  C  o  of  Solon  o  587  B  C  o  See 
chap  vii  §  xiv  T[  7  p  617 

3.  The  reader  is  requested  to  refer  to  the  following  passages  of 
Scripture  o  Ex  xx  18  Deut  xx  21  2  Sam  xix  2 

4.  Bought  o  on  9  mos  credit  o  the  following  articles  o  4  yds  3  qr8 
2  n  of  broadcloth  at  $12  a  yd  o  6  gals  1  pt  2  gi  of  vinegar  at  65 
cts  a  gal  o  and  3  J  cords  of  wood  at  $7.50  a  cord  f 

*This  word  cent,  in  the  combination  per  cent,  had  become  thoroughly  established 
as  an  integral  word,  and  was  almost  universally  written  and  printed  without  the  mark 
of  abbreviation  ;  but  of  late  years,  some  of  our  book-makers,  in  a  spirit  of  hypercriti- 
cism,  have  insisted,  unwisely  I  think,  on  restoring  the  period  after  cent  to  show  that 
it  is  an  abbreviation  of  centum.  They  ought  in  consistency  to  put  a  period  after 
quart,  to  show  that  it  is  an  abbreviation  of  quarta,  or  after  cab,  because  it  is  abbrevi- 
ated for  cabriolet. 

t  The  teacher  may  multiply  and  vary  indefinitely  examples  like  the  2d,  3d,  4th, 


42  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

5.  Poetry  was  not  the  sole  praise  of  either ;  for  both  excelled  likewise 
in  prose:  but  Pope  did  not  borrow  his  prose  from  his  predecessor. 

6.  Dryden's  page  is  a  natural  field  o  rising  into  inequalities  o  and 
diversified  by  the  varied  exuberance  of  abundant  vegetation  o  Pope's 
is  a  velvet  lawn  o  shaven  by  the  scythe  o  and  levelled  by  the  roller. 

7.  Of  genius  o  that  power  which  constitutes  a  poet  o  that  quality 
without  which  judgment  is  cold  o  and  knowledge  is  inert  o  that  en- 
ergy which  collects  o  combines  o  amplifies  o  and  animates  o  the  su- 
periority must  o  with  some  hesitation  o  be  allowed  to  Dryden  o 

8.  It  is  not  to  be  inferred,  that  of  this  poetical  vigor  Pope  had  only 
a  little,  because  Dryden  had  more ;  for  every  other  writer  since  Milton 
must  give  place  to  Pope  ;  and  even  of  Dryden  it  must  be  said,  that, 
if  he  has  brighter  paragraphs,  he  has  not  better  poems. 


SECTION    V. 

The  Interrogation  Point. 
An  Interrogation  Point  is  used  for  marking  questions. 

Note  1.  In  regard  to  the  portion  of  discourse  marked  off  by  it,  the  Interrogation 
Point  is  equivalent  most  commonly  to  a  period ;  but  it  may  be  equivalent  to  a  colon, 
a  semicolon,  or  a  comma.  It  is  a  question  of  some  importance  to  know,  in  each  case, 
to  which  of  these  four  points  the  interrogation  point  is  equivalent,  because  upon  this 
depends  the  propriety  of  using,  or  not  using,  a  capital  after  it.  When  there  is,  in  that 
particular  construction,  but  one  interrogation  point,  it  is  always  equivalent  to  a  period, 
and  should  be  followed  by  a  capital.  When,  hoAvevcr,  there  is  a  succession  of  questions, 
following  each  other  in  a  series,  without  any  affirmative  sentences  intervening,  the 
interrogation  points  sometimes  represent  sections  of  discourse  less  than  a  period.  The 
way  to  determine  to  which  class  the  particular  questions  belong  is  to  change  the  con- 
struction into  an  affirmative  form.  It  will  in  one  case  be  resolved  into  a  series  of 
independent  sentences,  separated  by  periods ;  in  the  other,  into  a  connected  or  con- 
tinued sentence,  with  co-ordinate  members  separated  by  commas,  semicolons,  or 
colons.  Example.  "Who  will  bring  me  into  the  strong  city?  who  will  lead  me  into 
Edom?  Wilt  not  thou,  0  God,  who  hast  cast  us  off?  and  wilt  not  thou,  0  God,  go 
forth  with  our  hosts?"  (Ps.  108:  10,  11.)  Change  to  the  affirmative  form.  "Some 
one  will  bring  me  into  the  strong  city ;  some  one  will  lead  me  into  Edom.  Thou,  0 
God,  who  hast  cast  us  off,  wilt  do  it ;  thou,  0  God,  wilt  go  forth  with  our  hosts." 
Another  example.    "Who  goeth  a  warfare  any  time  at  his  own  charges?  who  planteth 

using  for  this  purpose  the  ordinary  school-books  on  Arithmetfc,  Geography,  Ac.  Such 
examples  should  be  given  until  the  student  is  entirely  familiar  with  the  modes  of 
punctuating  these  common  abbreviations. 


PUNCTUATION  —  INTEEROGATION.  43 

•  Tineyard,  and  eateth  not  of  the  fruit  thereof?  or  who  feedeth  a  flock,  and  eateth  not 
of  the  milk  of  the  flock  ?  Say  I  these  things  as  a  man  ?  or  saith  not  the  law  the  same 
also?"  (1  Cor.  9:  7,  8.)  Affirmatively:  "No  one  goeth  a  warfare  at  any  time  at  his 
own  charges ;  no  one  planteth  a  vineyard,  and  eateth  not  of  the  fruit  thereof;  no  one 
feedeth  a  flock,  and  eateth  not  of  the  milk  of  the  flock.  I  do  not  say  these  things  as 
a  man  ;  the  law  saith  the  same  things  also."  Another  example.  "  Shall  a  man  obtain 
the  favor  of  Heaven  by  impiety  ?  by  murder  ?  by  falsehood  ?  by  theft  ?  "  Affirmatively : 
"  A  man  cannot  obtain  the  favor  of  Heaven  by  impiety,  by  murder,  by  falsehood,  by 
theft." 

EuLE   1.    Direct  Questions.  —  The   Interrogation  Point 
should  be  placed  at  the  end  of  every  direct  question. 

Note  1.  A  direct  question  is  one  in  regular  form,  requiring,  or  at  least  admitting  an 
answer;  as,  "Why  do  you  neglect  your  duty?"  An  indirect  question  is  one  that  ia 
merely  reported  or  spoken  of;  as,  "  He  inquired  why  you  neglected  your  duty." 

Note  2.  When  there  is  a  succession  of  questions,  having  a  common  grammatical  depend- 
ence on  some  preceding  word  or  clause,  each  question  forming  by  itself  an  incomplete 
sentence,  some  writers  place  an  interrogation  point  only  at  the  end  of  the  series,  and 
separate  the  several  members  by  a  dash,  or  perhaps  by  a  comma.  This  method  of  punc- 
tuation is  not  correct.  Each  question,  no  matter  how  short  or  broken,  should  have 
its  own  point.    See  the  example  immediately  preceding  Rule  1. 

Note  3.  Where  the  words  on  which  a  series  of  questions  have  a  common  dependence 
come  after  the  questions,  instead  of  preceding  them,  there  should  be  an  interrogation 
point  only  at  the  end ;  as,  "  Where  bs  your  gibes  now ;  your  gambols ;  your  songs ; 
your  flashes  of  merriment,  that  were  wont  to  set  the  table  in  a  roar  f  "  Here  the  clause 
italicized  refers  back  to  all  four  items,  the  "gibes,"  "gambols,"  "songs,"  and  "flashes 
of  merriment."  They  all  have  a  grammatical  dependence  upon  it.  If  the  sentence 
should  be  transposed,  so  as  to  place  this  clause  first,  then  each  question  will  qpme  out 
complete,  and  will  have  its  interrogation  point.  Thus :  "  Where  now  be  those  things 
of  yours  that  were  wont  to  set  the  table  in  a  roar? — your  gibes?  your  gambols?  your 
songs?  your  flashes  of  merriment? " 

Note  4.  S9metimes  a  question  is  intended,  although  the  words  are  not  put  in  the 
usual  interrogative  form.  Thus:  "You  will  come  this  afternoon?  "  In  such  cases  the 
interrogation  point  should  be  used,  as  in  this  example,  although  the  sentence  may  be 
declarative  in  its  form. 

Note  5.  When  a  question  formally  introduces  a  remark  or  a  quotation,  the  question 
should  first  be  brought  to  a  close  with  an  interrogation  point,  and  then  the  remark  or 
quotation  should  follow ;  as.  Who  that  has  read  can  ever  forget  the  words  of  Hamlet's 
soliloquy?— 

"To  be,  or  not  to  be;  that  is  the  question: 
Whether  'tis  nobler  in  the  mind  to  suffer 
The  slings  and  arrows  of  outrageous  fortune; 
Or  to  take  arms  against  a  sea  of  troubles, 
And  by  opposing  end  them." 


44  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETOBIO. 

SECTION    VI. 

The  Exclamation  Point. 

The  Exclamation  Point  is  used  for  marking  strong  emo- 
tion. 

Note  1.  In  regard  to  the  portion  of  discourse  set  off  by  it,  the  exclamation  point, 
like  the  interrogation  point,  is  equivalent  commonly  to  a  period ;  but  it  may  be  equiv- 
alent to  a  colon,  a  semicolon,  or  a  comma.  The  same  considerations  govern  hero  that 
govern  in  the  case  of  the  Interrogation.    See  Note  under  "  Interrogation  Point." 

Rule  1.  The  Exclamation  Point  must  be  used  at  the  close 
of  every  sentence,  clause,  or  grammatical  expression,  in- 
tended to  convey  strong  emotion. 

Note.  Inexperienced  and  weak  writers  are  apt  to  deal  largely  in  the  use  of  the 
exclamation  point,  as  if  to  make  up  for  the  feebleness  of  the  thought  by  mere  tricks 
of  punctuation.  Young  writers  therefore  should  be  on  their  guard  in  this  matter, 
and  not  use  the  exclamation  point  unless  there  is  some  real  and  strong  emotion  to  bo 
expressed. 

Rule  2.  The  Exclamation  Point  must  be  used  after  an 
interjection  ;  as, —  • 

Fie  on  him !  Ah  me !  Oh !  it  hurts  me.  Oh  that  I  could  find  him !  0  father 
Abraham !    0  Lord !  * 

Note  1.  Where  the  interjection  does  not  stand  by  itself,  but  forms  part  of  a  sen- 
tence, clause,  or  expression,  the  exclamation  point  should  be  placed  at  the  end  of  the 
whole  expression,  and  not  immediately  after  the  interrogation ;  as,  "  0  wretched 
Btate  !     0  bosom  black  as  death  !  " 

Note  2.  Sometimes  oh  is  grammatically  separable  from  the  words  following  it, 
though  the  emotion  runs  through  the  whole.  In  that  case,  there  should  be  a  comma 
after  the  oh,  and  the  exclamation  point  at  the  end  of  the  whole  expression ;  as,  "  Oh, 
where  shall  rest  be  found !  " 

*  In  regard  to  the  two  words  O  arid  oh,  Webster  says :  A  distinction  between  the  use 
of  Oand  oh  is  insisted  on  by  some,  n.-mely,  that  O  should  be  used  only  in  direct  address 
to  a  person  or  personified  object,  and  s'totild  never  be  followed  by  the  exclamation  point, 
while  f>h  should  bo  used  in  more  exch-mations  where  no  direct  appeal  or  address  to  an 
object  is  made,  and  may  be  followed  by  the  exclamation  point  or  not,  according  to 
the  nature  or  construction  of  the  sentence.  This  distinction,  however,  is  nearly  or 
totally  disregarded  by  most  writers,  even  the  best,  the  two  forms  being  generally 
used  quite  indiscriminately.  The  forra  O  is  the  ono  most  commonly  employed  for 
both  uses  by  modern  writers.  "0  for  a  kindling  toiich  from  that  pure  flame  I" 
Wordsworth.  "O  what  a  rapturous  cry!"  "0  Eldon,  in  whatever  sphere  thou 
Bhine."  "Strike,  oh  Muse,  in  a  measure  bold!"  Macmday.  "0,  what  a  fair  and 
ministering  angel !  "  "0  sweet  angel  I "  Longfellow.  "  O  sir,  oh  prince,  I  have  n« 
country:  none."  Tennyson. 


PUNCTUATION  —  EXCLAMATION.  45 

Ii'OTE  3,  When  an  interjection  is  repeated  several  times,  the  words  are  separated 
from  each  other  by  a  comma,  the  exclamation  being  put  only  after  the  last ;  as,  "  Fie, 
fie,  fie !  pah,  pah !  give  me  an  ounce  of  civet,  good  apothecary,  to  sweeten  my  imagi- 
nation." 

Note  4.  Two  of  the  interjections,  eh  and  hey,  are  sometimes  uttered  in  a  peculiar 
tone,  so  as  to  ask  a  question.  In  that  case,  they  should  be  followed  by-  the  interroga- 
tion point ;  as,  "  You  thought  you  would  not  be  found  out,  eh  ?  " 

Rule  3.  \yhere  the  emotion  to  be  expressed  is  very- 
strong,  more  than  one  exclamation  point  is  sometimes  used ; 
as,  "  That  man  virtuous ! !  You  might  as  well  preach  to  me 
of  the  virtue  of  Judas  Iscariot ! !  " 

Note.  This  mode  of  repeating  the  exclamation  point  is  much  used  in  burlesque  and 
satire. 

Examples  for  Practice. 
[To  THE  Student.   These  examples,  though  intended  mainly  for  illustrating  the  Rules 
for  the  marks  of  Interrogation  and  Exclamation,  will  yet  serve  the  incidental  purpose 
of  reviewing  all  the  preceding  rules.] 

1.  Why  o  for  so  many  a  year  o  has  the  poet  wandered  amid  the 
fragments  of  Athens  and  Rome  o  and  paused  o  with  strange  and 
kindling  feelings  o  amid  their  broken  columns  o  their  mouldering 
temples  o  their  deserted  plains  o 

2.  Greece  o  indeed  o  fell  o  but  how  did  she  fall  o  Did  she  fall 
like  Babylon  o  Did  she  fall  like  Lucifer  o  never  to  rise  again  o 

3.  Rouse  o  ye  Romans  o  rouse  o  ye  slaves  o 

4.  Down  o  soothless  insulter  o  I  trust  not  the  tale  o 

5.  Have  you  eyes  o  Could  you  on  this  fair  mountain  leave  to 
feed  o  and  batten  on  this  moor  o  Ha  o  have  you  eyes  o  You  cannot 
call  it  love  o  for  o  at  your  age  o  the  hey-day  in  the  blood  is  tame, 
it 's  humble,  and  waits  upon  the  judgment  o  and  what  judgment 
would  step  from  this  to  this  o 

6.  Charge  o  Chester  o  charge  o  on  o  Stanley  o  on  o 

7.  Who  o  in  a  sea-fight  o  ever  thought  of  the  price  of  the  chain 
which  beats  out  the  brains  of  a  pirate  o  or  of  the  odor  of  the  splin- 
ter which  shatters  his  leg  o 

8.  King  Charles  o  forsooth  o  had  so  many  private  virtues  o  And 
had  James  no  private  virtues  o  Was  even  Oliver  Cromwell  o  his 
bitterest  enemies  themselves  being  judges  o  destitute  of  private 
virtues  o  And  whato  after  all  o  are  the  virtues  ascribed  to  Charles  o 

9.  Ho  o  trumpets  o  sound  a  war-note  o 

10.  Oho  was  there  ever  such  a  knight  o  in  friendship  or  in  war  o 
as  our  sovereign  lord  o  King  Henry  o  the  soldier  of  Navarre  o 

6  4 


46  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC, 


SECTION    VII. 

The  Dash. 

The  Dash  is  used  chiefly  either  to  mark  a  sudden  change 
or  interruption  in  the  structure  of  the  sentence,  or  to  mark 
some  elocutionary  pause. 

Note.  The  Dash,  which  is  of  modern  origin,  has  been  used  so  indiscriminately  and 
injudiciously  by  ill-informed  writers,  that  some  critics  have  insisted  on  banishing  it 
entirely.  This  would  be  only  going  to  another  extreme.  There  are,  in  many  pas- 
sages, in  those  particularly  which  are  highly  rhetorical,  turns  of  thought,  which  can 
be  indicated  by  a  dash,  and  which  cannot  be  indicated  by  any  of  the  ordinary  gram- 
matical points.  The  daah,  therefore,  is  a  necessity  in  many  kinds  of  composition. 
But  it  should  not  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  comma,  semicolon,  colon,  period,  or 
interrogation,  as  inexpert  writers  sometimes  do  mistakenly  use  it,  but  should  be  em- 
ployed where  these  reguLar  marks  cannot  be  used,  and  to  express  things  which  they 
cannot-  express.  The  dash,  therefore,  is  incorrect  whenever  any  one  of  these  marks 
could  be  substituted  for  it  without  changing  the  meaning.  Young  writers  particu- 
larly need  to  be  on  their  guard  in  using  the  dash.  Mark  every  dash  as  wrong,  unless 
some  positive  reason  for  its  use  can  be  given,  and  unless  it  can  be  shown  that  none  of 
the  ordinary  marks  would  express  the  idea. 


KuLE  1.  Construction  Changed.  —  A  Dash  is  used  where 
the  construction  of  the  sentence  is  abruptly  broken  off  or 
changed;  as, — 

Was  there  ever  a  bolder  captain  of  a  more  valiant  band  ?    Was  there  ever — but  I 
Bcom  to  boast. 

Rule  2.  Unexpected  Change  in  the  Sentiment. — The  Dash 
is  sometimes  used  to  mark  a  sudden  and  unexpected  change 
in  the  sentiment ;  as,  — 

He  had  no  malice  in  his  mind  — 
No  ruffles  on  his  shirt. 


Rule  3.  Emphatic  Generalization. — A  Dash  is  sometimes 
used  to  mark  the  transition  from  a  succession  of  particulars 
to  some  emphatic  general  expression  whJch  includes  them 
all;  as, — 

He  was  witty,  learned,  industrioos,  ]piaxuibl»f  — everything  but  honest. 


PUNCTUATION  —  DASH.  47 

KuLE  4.  Elocutionary  Pause.  —  A  Dash  is  sometimes  used 
to  mark  a  significant  pause,  where  there  is  no  break  in  the 
grammatical  construction ;  as,  — 

You  have  giren  the  command  to  a  person  of  illustrioua  birth,  of  ancient  family,  of 
innumerable  statues,  but  —  of  no  experience. 

Note.  The  mark  here  is  purely  elocutionary.  A  good  reader  will  pause  some  per- 
ceptible time  after  the  but,  whether  there  is  a  mark  there  or  not.  The  dash  serves  to 
indicate  to  the  eye  what  the  good  reader  will  indicate  by  his  voice.  This  particular 
use  of  the  dash  is  pretty  well  established,  and  it  is  not  worth  while  to  make  any 
change  in  regard  to  it  now.  But  were  the  matter  of  elocutionary  notation  to  be 
undertaken  anew,  it  would  seem  better  to  mark  this  suspension  of  the  voice  by  a 
blank  space  than  by  a  dash,  the  dash  being  used  for  other  and  very  different  purposes, 

EuLE  5.  Expressions  dependent  upon  a  Concluding  Clause. 
—  When  there  is  a  long  series  of  clauses  or  expressions,  all 
dependent  upon  some  concluding  clause,  it  is  usual,  in  pass- 
ing from  the  preceding  part  of  the  passage  to  that  upon 
which  the  whole  depends,  to  mark  the  transition  by  insert- 
ing a  Dash,  in  addition  to  the  comma ;  as, — 

The  great  men  of  Rome,  her  beautiful  legends,  her  history,  the  height  to  which 
she  rose,  and  the  depth  to  which  she  fell, — these  make  up  one-half  of  a  student's 
ideal  world. 

Note.  The  most  common  example  of  this  use  of  the  dash  is  where  the  grammatical 
subject  or  nominative  is  loaded  with  numerous  adjuncts,  so  that  there  is  danger  of  its 
being  lost  sight  of  when  the  verb  is  introduced.  The  insertion  of  the  dash  here  seems 
to  give  the  mind  an  opportunity  of  going  back  to  the  main  subject ;  as,  "  Every  step 
in  the  attainment  of  physical  power ;  every  new  trait  of  intelligence,  as  they  one  by 
one  arise  in  the  infantine  intellect,  like  the  glory  of  night,  starting  star  by  star  into 
the  sky,  —  is  hailed  with  a  heart-burst  of  rapture  and  surprise." 

EuLE  6.  Rhetorical  Repetition. — When  a  word  or  an 
expression  is  repeated  for  rhetorical  purposes,  the  construc- 
tion being  begun  anew,  a  Dash  should  be  inserted  before 
each  such  repetition ;  as,  — 

Shall  I,  who  was  bom,  I  might  almost  say,  but  certainly  brought  up,  in  the  tent 
of  my  father,  that  most  excellent  general  —  shall  I,  the  conqueror  of  Spain  and  Gaul, 
and  not  only  of  the  Alpine  nations,  but  of  the  Alps  themselves — shall  I  compare 
myself  with  this  half-year  captain? 

Note.  This  kind  of  renetition  is  sometimes  called  by  elocutionists  the  Echo. 

Rule  7.  Reflex  Apposition. — Words  at  the  end  of  a  sen- 


48  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

tence,  and  standing  somewhat  detached,  and  referring  back 
by  apposition  to  preceding  parts  of  the  sentence,  should  be 
separated  from  the  previous  portions  by  a  Dash  ;  as,  — 

The  four  greatest  names  in  English  poetry  are  among  the  first  we  come  to,  —  Chan- 
cer, Spenser,  Shakspeare,  and  Milton. 

Kings  and  their  subjects,  masters  and  their  slaves,  find  a  common  level  in  two 
places,  —  at  the  cross,  and  in  the  grave. 

Note.  The  dash  here  is  said  by  some  to  indicate  the  omission  of  namdy,  or  that  is. 
It  is  true  that  one  of  these  exi)ressious  might  be  inserted  in  most  cases  that  come  under 
this  rule,  but  the  jjassage  would  thereby  lose  in  rhetorical  force.  The  dash,  in  this 
case,  as  in  Rule  4,  is  in  fact  purely  elocutionary. 

EuLE  8.  The  Dash  Parenthetical. — Parenthetical  expres- 
sions are  sometimes  included  between  two  Dashes,  instead  of 
the  usual  signs  of  parenthesis ;  as,  — 

The  smile  of  a  child — always  so  ready  when  there  is  no  distress,  and  so  soon  recur- 
ring when  that  distress  has  passed  away — is  like  an  opening  of  the  sky,  showing 
heaven  beyond. 

The  archetypes,  the  ideal  forms  of  things  without,— if  not,  as  some  philosopher* 
have  said,  in  a  metaphysical  sense,  yet  in  a  moral  sense, — exist  within  us. 

Note  1.  If,  when  the  parenthetical  part  is  removed  from  a  sentence  like  one  of  these, 
the  portions  remaining  require  no  point  between  them,  no  points  besides  the  dashes 
will  be  required  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  the  parenthetical  expression.  Thus,  in  the 
first  of  the  foregoing  examples,  if  the  parenthetical  part  be  left  out,  the  remaining 
portion  will  read,  "The  smile  of  a  child  is  like  an  opening,"  &c.  But  if  the  parea- 
thetical  part  be  left  out  of  the  second  example,  it  will  read,  "The  archetypes,  the  ideal 
forms  of  things  without,  exist  within  us,"  with  a  comma  at  the  place  where  the  two 
dashes  come  in.  In  such  cases,  there  must  be  two  commas  in  the  parenthetical  form 
of  the  sentence,  namely,  one  before  each  of  the  dashes,  as  in  the  example. 

Note  2.  If  the  parenthetical  words  express  a  question  or  an  exclamation,  they  must 
be  followed  by  an  interrogation  point  or  an  exclamation  point,  before  tlie  concluding 
dash;  as.  Religion— who  can  doubt  it?— is  the  noblest  theme  for  the  exercise  of  the 
intellect. 

Note  3.  The  question,  whether  the  marks  which  separate  parenthetical  words  from 
the  rest  of  the  sentence  shall  be  dashes,  commas,  or  marks  of  parenthesis,  is  left  a  good 
deal  to  the  fancy  of  the  writer.  The  subject  will  be  more  particularly  explained  in 
the  section  on  the  Parenthesis. 

Note  4.  When  one  parenthetical  expression  is  included  within  nnother,  that  which 
is  least  connected  in  construction  should  be  set  off  by  the  marks  of  parenthesis,  and 
the  other  by  dashes ;  as,  — 

"Sir  Smug,"  he  cries,  (for  lowest  nt  the  board  — 
Just  made  fifth  chaplain  of  his  patron  lord, 
His  shoulders  witnessing,  by  many  a  shrug, 
How  much  his  feelings  sufTcred  — sat  Sir  Smug), 
"Your  office  is  to  winnow  false  from  true: 
Come,  prophet,  drink ;  and  tell  us  what  think  you." 


PUNCTUATION  —  DASH.  49 

Rule  9.  Titles  run  in. — When  a  title,  instead  of  stand- 
ing in  a  line  by  itself,  over  a  paragraph,  is  run  in,  so  as  to 
make  a  part  of  the  paragraph,  it  should  be  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  line  by  a  dash ;  as, — 

FiDELiTT  TO  God.  — Whatever  station  or  rank  Thou  shalt  assign  me,  I  will  die  ten 
thousand  deaths  sooner  than  abandon  it. — Socrates. 

Note  1.  If,  at  the  end  of  a  paragraph,  the  name  of  the  author  or  of  the  book  from 
which  the  paragraph  has  been  taken  is  given,  it  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  par- 
agraph by  a  dash.    See  the  word  Socrates  at  the  end  of  the  preceding  example. 

Note  2.  The  word  chapter  or  section,  occurring  on  the  same  line  with  the  title,  is 
separated  from  it  by  a  dash ;  as,  — 

Chapter  I.  —  Punctuation. 

Rule  10.  Question  and  Answer.— If  question  and  answer, 
instead  of  beginning  separate  lines,  are  run  into  a  paragraph, 
they  sh'ould  be  separated  by  a  dash;  as, — 

Who  made  you? — God.  What  else  did  God  make?  —  God  made  all  things.  Why 
did  God  make  you  and  all  things? — God  made  all  things  for  his  own  glory. 

Rule  11.  Omissions. — The  dash  is  used  to  mark  the 
omissions  of  letters  or  figures ;  as,  — 

General  W n  captured  the  Hessians  at  Trenton. 

Matt.  9:1—6.    [N.  B.  This  is  equivalent  to  Matt.  9:  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6.] 

Rule  12.  Examples  on  a  New  Line.-— A  dash  should 
follow  as  and  thus,  when  the  example  following  them  begins 
a  new  line. 

For  examples,  see  nearly  all  the  preceding  rules  and  notes. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Almost  all  kinds  of  raw  material  extracted  from  the  interior  of 
the  earth  o  metals  o  coals  o  precious  stones  o  and  the  like  o  are 
obtained  from  mines  differing  in  fertility. 

2.  The  inferiority  of  French  cultivation  o  which  o  taking  the 
country  as  a  whole  o  must  be  allowed  to  be  real  o  though  much 
exaggerated  o  is  probably  more  owing  to  the  lower  average  of  in- 
dustrial skill  in  that  country  o  than  to  any  special  cause  o 

3.  Each  of  these  great  and  ever  memorable  struggles  o  Saxon 
against  Norman  o  villein  against  lord  o  Roundhead  against  Cava- 
lier o  Dissenter  against  Churchman  o   Manchester  against  Old 

5* 


50  COMPOSITION    AND    EHETORIC. 

Sarum  o  was  o  in  its  own  order  and  season  o  a  struggle  on  the 
result  of  which  were  staked  the  dearest  interests  of  the  human 
race  o 

4.  Time  was  growing  to  be  of  high  worth  o  and  o  from  causes 
which  justified  a  good  deal  o  though  not  quite  all  o  of  their  delay  o 
the  English  at  this  time  were  behindhand  o 

5.  Though  o  as  I  was  saying  o  it  is  only  the  shallow  part  of  one's 
heart  o  I  imagine  that  the  deepest  hearts  have  their  shallows  o 
which  can  be  filled  by  it  o  still  it  brings  a  shallow  relief  o 

6.  Here  lies  the  great  o  False  marble  o  where  o  Nothing  but 
sordid  dust  lies  here  o 

7.  Greece  o  Carthage  o  Rome  o  where  are  theyo 

8.  "I  plunged  right  into  the  debate  o  and"  o  **Did  not  say  a 
word  to  the  point  o  of  course  "  o 

9.  The  essence  of  all  poetry  may  be  said  to  consist  in  three  things  o 
invention  o  expression  o  inspiration  o 

10.  "  How  are  you  o  Trepid  o  How  do  you  feel  to-day  o  Mr. 
Trepid  ?  "  "A  great  deal  worse  than  I  was  o  thank  you  o  almost 
dead  o  I  am  obliged  to  you"  o  "Why  o  Trepid  o  what  is  the  mat- 
ter with  you"o  "Nothing  o  I  tell  you  o  nothing  in  particular  o 
but  a  great  deal  is  the  matter  with  me  in  general "  o 


SECTION    VIII. 

The   Parenthesis. 

The  Marks  of  Parenthesis  are  used  to  inclose  words  which 
have  little  or  no  connection  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

Note  1.  The  word  parenthesis  (QreoYi  irupfv&eaii,  insertion)  signifies  something  in 
Berted  or  ptit  in,  and  applies  primarily  to  a  sentence  or  a  part  of  a  sentence  inserted, 
by  way  of  comment  or  explanation,  in  the  midst  of  another  sentence,  of  which  it  is 
independent  in  construction,  and  which  is  complete  without  it. 

Note  2.  We  must  distinguish  between  parenthesis  and  marks  of  parenthesis.  The 
parenthesis  is  the  sentence,  or  part  of  a  sentence,  that  is  inserted  into  another  sen- 
tence. The  marks  of  parenthesis  are  the  two  curved  lines  which  inclose  the  words 
thus  let  in.  The  term  marks  of  parenthesis,  to  indicate  these  cun'ed  lines,  is  i)referred 
to  parentheses.  Parentheses  means  properly  parenthetical  sentences,  not  marks  of 
parenthesis. 


PUNCTUATION  —  PARENTHESIS.  51 

Note  3.  Sometimes  commas,  and  sometimes  dashes,  are  used  instead  of  the  curyed 
lines,  to  inclose  words  that  are  of  a  parenthetical  character,  and  it  is  not  always  easy 
to  determine  when  to  use  one  of  these  modes,  and  when  to  use  another.  It  may  be 
observed,  in  general,  that  the  curved  lines  mark  the  greatest  degree  of  separation  from 
the  rest  of  the  sentence;  the  dashes,  the  next  greatest;  and  the  commas,  the  least 
separation  of  all. 

Rule.  Words  inserted  in  the  body  of  a  sentence,  and 
nearly  or  quite  independent  of  it  in  meaning  and  construc- 
tion, should  be  inclosed  with  the  marks  of  parenthesis. 

Note  1,  A  very  common  example  of  the  use  of  marks  of  parenthesis  is  in  the  re- 
ports of  speeches,  where  a  person  is  referred  to,  but  not  named.  In  the  actual 
delivery  of  the  speech,  the  person  meant  is  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  speaker's 
pointing  or  bowing  to  him,  or  looking  at  him,  or  by  other  significant  gesture.  But 
as  this  cannot  be  transferred  to  the  written  or  printed  page,  the  reporter  usually  sup- 
plies its  place  by  inserting  the  name  of  the  person  meant,  and  the  name  thus  inserted 
by  the  reporter  is  inclosed  by  marks  of  parenthesis.  Thus:  "After  the  very  lucid 
exposition  of  the  matter  by  the  gentleman  opposite  to  me  (Mr.  Stuart),  it  will  not  be 
necessary  for  me  to  say  much  in  defence  of  this  part  of  the  subject." 

Note  2.  In  reporting  speeches,  marts  of  parenthesis  are  used  to  inclose  exclama- 
tions of  approbation  or  disapprobation  on  the  part  of  the  audience  ;  as,  "  My  lords,  I 
am  amazed  at  his  lordship's  declaration  (hear,  hear).  Yes,  my  lords :  I  am  amazed, 
that  one  in  his  position  could  so  far  forget  the  proprieties  of  debate." 

Note  3.  Marks  of  parenthesis  are  used  to  inclose  a  query,  or  comment  of  any  kini, 
made  by  the  one  who  is  reporting,  copying,  or  quoting  the  words  of  another ;  aa, 
"  The  Romans  were  the  first  (indeed  ?)  who  learned  the  art  of  navigation."  In  strict 
accuracy,  the  marks  in  these  three  cases  (Notes  1,  2,  3)  should  be  brackets,  because 
the  matter  thus  inserted  is  really  an  interpolation  by  the  reporter.  But  custom  has 
sanctioned  the  use  of  marks  of  parenthesis  in  these  cases.  See  Section  IX.,  Note  2 
(Brackets.) 

Note  4.  In  scientific  works,  marks  of  parenthesis  are  used  to  inclose  figures  or  let- 
ters that  are  employed  in  enumerating  a  list  of  particulars  ;  as,  "The  unlawfulness  of 
suicide  appears  from  the  following  considerations :  (1.)  Suicide  is  unlawful  on  account 
of  its  general  consequences.    (2.)  Because  it  is  the  duty,"  &c. 

Note  5.  If  no  point  would  be  required  between  the  parts  of  a  sentence,  in  case  there 
were  no  parenthesis  there,  then  no  points  should  be  used  at  that  place,  in  addition  to 
the  marks  of  parenthesis ;  as,  "  The  Egyptian  style  of  architecture  (see  Dr.  Pocock's 
work)  was  apparently  the  mother  of  the  Greek." 

Note  6.  If  a  point  would  be  required  between  the  parts  of  a  sentence,  in  case  no 
parenthesis  were  there,  then,  when  the  parenthesis  is  inserted,  said  point  should  be 
inserted  also,  and  should  be  placed  after  the  second  mark  of  parenthesis ;  as,  "  Pride, 
in  some  disguise  or  other,  is  the  most  ordinary  spring  of  action."  "  Pride,  in  some 
disguise  or  other  (often  a  secret  to  the  proud  man  himself),  is  the  most  ordinarj 
spring  of  action." 

Note  7.  If  the  parenthetical  part  of  a  sentence  requires  at  the  end  a  point  of  its 
own,  this  point  should  come  inside  of  the  last  mark  of  parenthesis,  and  the  point 
belonging  to  the  main  sentence  should  come  before  the  first  mark  of  parenthesis ;  as, 
"While  the  Christian  desires  the  approbation  of  his  fellow-men,  (^nd  why  should  he 


52  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

not  desire  it?)  he  disdains  to  receive  their  good-will  by  dishonorable  means."  "Say 
not  in  thine  heart,  Who  shall  ascend  into  heaven?  (that  is,  to  bring  Christ  down  from 
above;)  or,  Who  shall  descend  into  the  deep?  (that  is,  to  bring  up  Christ  again  from 
the  dead.)    But  what  saith  it  ? " 

Note  8.  Sometimes  a  parenthesis  is  inserted,  not  between  the  parts  of  a  sentence, 
but  between  complete  and  independent  sentences,  and  the  parenthesis  itself  container 
one  or  more  complete  and  independent  sentences.  In  such  cases,  the  words  inclosed 
in  the  curved  lines  are  parenthetical  to  the  whole  paragraph,  rather  than  to  any  one 
sentence,  and  the  rule  for  punctuation  is,  to  insert,  in  addition  to  the  curved  lines, 
whatever  other  punctuation  marks  the  several  sentences  and  clauses  would  otherwise 
require ;  as,  "  Brethren,  be  followers  together  of  me,  and  mark  them  which  walk  so 
as  ye  have  us  for  an  ensample.  (For  many  walk,  of  whom  I  have  told  you  often,  and 
now  tell  you  even  weeping,  that  they  are  the  enemies  of  the  cross  of  Christ ;  whose 
end  is  destruction,  whose  god  is  their  belly,  and  whose  glory  is  in  their  shame ;  who 
mind  earthly  things.)  For  our  conversation  ia  in  heaven ;  from  whence  also  we  look 
for  the  Saviour,  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ" 


S  E  C  T  I  O  N    I  X. 

Brackets. 

Brackets  are  used  to   inclose  in  a  sentence  a  word,  or 
words,  which  do  not  form  part  of  the  original  composition. 

Note  1.  Brackets  are  somewhat  like  the  marks  of  parenthesis  in  form,  one,  how- 
ever, being  angular,  the  other  curved,  and  are  also  in  some  respects  like  the  latter  in 
signification  and  use. 

Note  2.  Brackets  are  used  to  inclose  a  sentence,  or  a  part  of  a  sentence,  within  the 
body  of  another  sentence,  and  thus  far  are  like  the  marks  of  parenthesis.  But  the 
matter  included  within  brackets  is  entirely  independent  of  the  sentence,  and  so  differa 
from  what  is  merely  parenthetical.  Further,  the  matter  within  the  brackets  is  usually 
inserted  by  one  writer  to  correct  or  add  to  what  has  been  written  by  another,  Mhile 
the  parenthesis  is  a  part  of  the  original  composition,  and  is  written  by  the  same  per- 
son that  wrote  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

Note  3.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  comma  before  and  after,  the  dash  before 
and  after,  the  marks  of  parenthesis,  and  the  brackets,  all  have  something  in  common. 
They  all  are  used  to  include  matter  which  is  inserted  in  the  body  of  a  sentence,  and 
which  is  more  or  less  independent  of  the  sentence,  and  extraneous  to  it.  They  indi- 
cate increasing  degrees  of  independence  and  extraneousness,  about  in  the  order  in 
which  they  have  just  been  named,  the  comma  before  and  after  showing  least,  and  the 
brackets  showing  most,  of  this  independence. 

Rule.   In  correcting  or  modifying   the  expressions   of 


PUNCTUATION  —  BRACKETS.  53 

another,  by  inserting  words  of  your  own,  the  words  thus 
inserted  should  be  inclosed  in  brackets;  as, — ■ 

A  soft  answer  turn  [turns]  away  wrath. 

The  number  of  our  days  are  [is]  with  thee. 

The  letter  [which]  you  wrote  me  on  Saturday  came  duly  to  hand. 

The  captain  had  several  men  [who]  died  on  the  voyage. 

Note  1.  Brackets  are  used  in  critical  editions  of  ancient  authors  to  indicate  that  in 
the  opinion  of  the  editor  the  words  so  inclosed  are  an  interpolation,  and  do  not  belong 
to  the  original.  The  words  thus  bracketed  are  not  interpolated  by  the  editor,  but  the 
editor  takes  this  means  of  indicating  that  they  have  been  interpolated  by  somebody 
else.  He  fears  to  leave  the  words  out  altogether,  because  they  have  stood  so  long  iu 
the  text,  but  he  takes  this  means  of  showing  that  he  considers  them  spurious. 

Note  2.  Brackets  are  also  used  in  dictionaries  to  separate  the  pronunciation,  or  the 
etymology  of  a  word,  or  some  incidental  remark  about  it,  from  the  other  parts  of  the 
explanation.  Thus :  Resemblant  [Fr.  re.ssemUer,  to  resemble.]  Having  resemblance. 
[Rare.] 

Note  3.  In  printing  Plays,  the  stage  directions  are  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence  by  brackets ;  and,  if  the  stage  direction  occurs  at  the  end  of  a  line,  only  the 
first  one  of  the  brackets  is  used.    Thus :  — 

Ham.  I  am  very  glad  to  see  you.    [  To  Bernardo.]  Good  even,  sir. 

Pol.  The  wind  sits  in  the  shoulder  of  your  sail, 
And  you  are  stay'd  for.  There,  —  my  blessing  with  you;  {^Laying  his  hand  on  Laertes's 
head. 

King.  I  pray  you  go  with  me.    [Exeunt. 

Hot.  Let  them  come  in.    {Exit  servant. 

Note  4.  In  regard  to  the  us6  of  points  before  and  after  the  brackets,  and  the  punc- 
tuation of  any  sentence  or  clause  within  the  brackets,  the  same  rules  will  apply  that 
have  been  given  in  regard  to  the  marks  of  parenthesis. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  Last  Words  of  Remarkable  Men  o  The  last  words  of  Raleigh 
were  o  "  Why  dost  thou  not  strike  o  Strike  o  man  o  "  To  the  exe- 
cutioner o  who  was  pausing  o  The  last  of  the  Duke  of  Bucking- 
ham o  "  Traitor  o  thou  hast  killed  me©  "  To  the  assassin  Felton  o 
The  last  of  Charles  II.  o  "Don't  let  poor  Nelly  starve o  "  Referring 
to  Nell  Gwynne  o  The  last  of  William  III.  o  "  Can  this  last  longo  " 
To  his  physician  o  The  last  of  Locke  o  "Cease  now  o"  To  Lady 
Markham  o  who  had  been  reading  the  Psalms  to  him  o 

2.  If  we  exercise  right  principles  o  and  we  cannot  have  them 
unless  we  exercise  them  o  they  must  be  perpetually  on  the  in- 
crease o 

3.  Are  you  still  o  I  fear  you  are  o  far  from  being  comfortably 
settled  o 

4.  She  had  managed  this  matter  so  well©  oh©  how  artful  a  woman 


54  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

she  was  o  but  my  father's  heart  was  gone  before  I  suspected  it  was 
in  danger. 

6.  Know  then  this  truth  o  enough  for  man  to  know  o 
Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below  o 

6.  Our  last  kingo 
Whose  image  even  but  now  appeared  to  us  o 
Was  o  as  you  know  o  by  Fortinbras  of  Norway  o 
©Thereto  prick'd  on  by  a  most  emulate  pride o 
Dar'd  to  the  combat  o  in  which  our  valiant  Hamlet 

0  For  so  this  side  of  our  known  world  esteemed  himo 
Did  slay  this  Fortinbras  o 

7.  The  Egyptian  style  of  architecture  o  see  DrPocockonot  his 
discourses  o  but  his  prints  o  was  apparently  the  mother  of  the  Greek  o 

8.  Yet  o  by  your  gracious  patience  o 

1  will  a  round  unvarnished  tale  deliver 

Of  my  whole  course  of  loveo  what  drugs  o  what  charms  o 
What  conjuration  o  and  what  mighty  magic  o  "* 

0  For  such  proceeding  I  am  charged  withal  o 

1  won  his  daughter© 


SECTION   X. 
Quotation  Marks. 

A  Quotation  is  the  introduction  into  one's  discourse  of  a 
word  or  of  words  uttered  by  some  one  else. 

Note.  The  marks  of  quotation  are  two  inverted  commas  (")  at  the  beginning,  and 
two  apostrophes  ( ")  at  the  end,  of  the  portion  quoted. 

Rule  1.  A  word  or  words  introduced  from  some  other 
author  should  be  inclosed  by  quotation  marks. 

Note  1,  It  is  proper  for  a  writer  to  use  quotation  marks  in  introducing  words  from 
some  other  writings  of  his  own,  if  the  wonis  thus  introduced  are  intended  as  a  citation. 

Note  2.  A  writer,  in  quoting  from  himself,  may  use  his  option  in  regard  to  the  use 
of  quotation  marks.  It  depends  upon  wliether  he  does,  or  does  not,  wish  to  make  a 
reference  to  his  previous  writings.  We  have  no  sudi  option,  however,  when  using 
the  words  of  other  people.    To  use  the  words  of  others  without  acknowledging  them 


PUNCTUATION  —  QUOTATION    MARKS.        65 

to  be  such,  is  plagiarism,  which  is  only  another  name  for  stealing.  It  is,  however,  a 
breach  of  the  Decalogue,  rather  than  of  Rhetoric. 

Note  3.  Sometimes,  in  quoting  from  another,  we  wish  for  convenience  to  give  only 
the  substance  of  his  meaning,  but  not  his  exact  words.  In  such  a  case,  we  may  show 
that  the  wording  has  been  thus  altered,  by  using  only  one  inverted  comma  and  one 
apostrophe,  instead  of  two.  Thus:  The  last  six  commandments  are,  'Honor  thy 
father  and  thy  mother,  Thou  shalt  not  kill.  Thou  shalt  not  commit  adultery.  Thou 
ehalt  not  steal,  Thou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness.  Thou  shalt  not  covet.'  Unless  we 
indicate  in  this  way,  or  by  express  remark,  that  the  phraseology  has  been  altered,  we 
should  in  quoting  be  careful  to  give  the  exact  words  of  the  author,  especially  where 
the  quotation  is  from  Holy  Scripture.  Any  alteration  whatever  in  the  words  inclosed 
in  quotation  marks  is  regarded  as  dishonest,  unless  in  some  manner  we  distinctly 
indicate  that  such  alteration  has  been  made. 

Note  4.  Quotation  marks  are  not  proper  when  we  state  the  opinion  of  others  in 
language  of  our  own ;  as,  Socrates  said  that  he  believed  the  soul  to  be  immortal. 
If  this  expression  be  changed,  so  as  to  give  the  exact  words  of  Socrates,  then  the  quo- 
tation marks  will  be  needed ;  as,  Socrates  said,  "  I  believe  the  soul  to  be  immortal." 

Note  5.  Short  phrases  from  foreign  languages  are  usually  printed  in  italics,  instead 
of  being  inclosed  in  quotation  marks ;  as,  He  believed  in  the  principle  of  nil  admi- 
rari.  Titles  and  names  of  various  kinds  are  sometimes  marked  in  this  way ;  as, 
The  Tempest  is  regarded  by  some  as  one  of  Shakspeare's  earliest  plays.  This  prac- 
tice, however,  is  not  so  much  in  vogue  as  it  was,  the  tendency  at  present  being  to  use, 
in  all  such  cases,  the  quotation  marks  instead  of  italics. 


Rule  2.  When  a  quotation  incloses  within  it  another 
quotation,  the  external  quotation  has  the  double  marks,  and 
the  one  included  has  only  the  single  marks ;  as,  — 

It  has  been  well  said,  "The  command,  'Thou  shalt  not  kill,' forbids  many  crimes 
besides  that  of  murder." 

Some  one  has  said,  "What  an  argument  for  prayer  is  contained  in  the  words,  'Our 
Father  which  art  in  heaven ! ' " 

Note  1.  If  the  inclosed  or  secondary  quotation  ends  the  sentence,  as  in  the  second 
of  the  preceding  examples,  three  apostrophes  will  there  come  together,  of  which  the 
first  will  belong  to  the  inclosed  quotation,  and  the  other  two  to  the  original. 

Note  2.  When  an  inclosed  quotation  itself  contains  words  or  phrases  that  are 
quoted,  those  words  or  phrases  have  the  double  marks ;  as,  "  Trench  says,  '  What  a 
lesson  the  word  "diligence  "  contains  ! '  " 

Note  3.  The  preceding  note  provides  for  a  quotation  within  a  quotation  within  a 
quotation.  When  the  sentence  becomes  more  involved  than  this,  the  additional  de- 
grees of  quotation  cannot  be  expressed  without  producing  confusion,  and  may  there- 
fore be  omitted ;  as.  It  is  written  in  the  Gospel,  "  Jesus  answered  the  Jews,  '  Is  it 
not  written  in  your  law,  I  said,  ye  are  gods  ? ' "  If,  in  this  sentence,  it  were  at- 
tempted to  carry  out  fully  the  marking  of  quotations,  the  words  would  stand  thus, 
"  It  is  written  in  the  Gospel,  '  Jesus  answered  the  Jews,  "  Is  it  not  written  in  your 
law,  '  I  said,  "  ye  are  gods  "'?"'" 

Note  4.  When  an  interrogation  or  an  exclamation  mark  comes  at  the  same  place 
•with  the  quotation  marks,  the  interrogation  or  the  exclamation  mark  should  be  placed 
inside  of  the  quotation  marks,  if  it  is  a  part  of  the  passage  quoted ;  but  if  it  refers  back 


56  COMPOSITION    AND    EHETORIC. 

to  something  preceding  the  introduction  of  the  passage  quoted,  the  interrogation  or 
exclamation  mark  should  be  outside  of  the  quotation  marks.  Thus :  People  talk  about 
the  "passing  crowd."  Yet,  if  we  consider  rightly,  is  there  not  something  of  moment- 
ous interest  in  this  same  "  passing  crowd  "  ?  Here  the  question  goes  back  beyond  the 
quotation,  and  therefore  the  interrogation  point  should  stand  outside  of  it.  When 
Lord  Suffolk  said  in  Parliament,  "It  is  lawful  to  use  all  the  means  that  God  and  nature 
have  put  into  our  hands,"  Chatham  quoted  the  expression  with  an  exclamation  of  scorn 
and  surprise,  "  That  God  and  nature  have  put  into  our  hands  " !  Here  the  exclamation 
is  not  Suffolk's,  but  Chatham's,  and  therefoi-e  should  be  put  outside  of  the  quotation. 

KuLE  3.  When  several  consecutive  paragraphs  are  quoted, 
the  inverted  commas  should  be  placed  at  the  beginning  of 
each  paragraph,  but  the  apostrophes  only  at  the  end  of  the 
whole  quotation. 

Note  1.  If  the  several  paragraphs  thus  quoted  do  not  come  together  in  the  original, 
but  are  taken  from  different  parts  of  the  book  or  essay,  each  several  paragraph  should 
begin  and  end  with  quotation  marks. 

Note  2.  If  the  extract  forms  but  one  paragraph,  but  is  made  up  of  several  detached 
portions  taken  from  different  parts  of  the  book  or  essay  quoted,  the  fact  that  the 
extracts  are  not  continuous  may  be  shown,  either  by  inserting  several  points  (....) 
at  each  place  where  there  is  a  break,  or  by  inclosing  each  detached  portion  with 
quotation  marks. 

Note  3.  In  some  publications,  the  inverted  commas  are  inserted  at  the  beginning 
of  each  line  of  a  quotation,  no  matter  how  long.  The  London  Times  always  punctuates 
in  this  way.  So  do  some  American  newspapers.  The  practice  is  more  common  in 
England  than  in  America,  but  as  it  encumbers  and  disfigures  the  page  without  any 
real  advantage,  the  tendency  in  both  countries  is  towards  the  simpler  method  pre- 
scribed in  Rule  3. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

1.  This  definition  o  Dr  o  Latham  o  from  whom  we  borrowed  it  o 
illustrates  o  in  his  work  on  the  o  English  Language  o  p  o  359  o 
by  the  expression  o  a  sharp-edged  instrument  o  ,  which  means  an 
instrument  with  sharp  edges. 

2.  The  words  o  all- wise  o  ,  o  incense-breaking  o  ,  o  book-seller  o , 
and  o  noble-man  o  are  compounds. 

3.  ©  There  is  but  one  object  o  o  says  Augustine  o  o  greater  than 
the  soul  o  and  that  one  is  its  Creator  o  © 

4.  Let  me  make  the  ballads  of  a  nation  said  Fletcher  of  Saltoun 
and  I  care  not  who  makes  the  laws 

5.  When  Fenelon's  library  was  on  fire  ©  ©  God  be  praised  ©  o 
said  he  ©  ©  that  it  is  not  the  dwelling  of  a  poor  man  ©  © 

6.  ©  Stop  a  moment  here  ©  ©  said  Corinne  to  Lord  Nevil  ©  as  he 
stood  under  the  portico  of  the  church  ©  ©  pause  before  drawing 
aside  the  curtain  which  covers  the  entrance  of  the  temple  ©  © 


PUNCTUATION  —  APOSTROPHE,  ETC.  57 

7.  A  drunkard  once  reeled  up  to  Whitefield  with  the  remark  o  o 
Mr  o  Whitefield  o  I  am  one  of  your  converts  o  o  I  think  it  very 
likely  o  o  was  the  reply  o  o  for  I  am  sure  you  are  none  of  God's  o  o 

8.  Sir  Walter  Scott's  novel  o  o  Guy  Mannering  o  o  is  one  of 
his  best. 


SECTION    XI. 

Apostrophe,  Hyphen,  Caret,  &e. 

Note.  The  other  marks  used  in  composition  are  either  so  purely  grammatical,  or 
they  relate  so  much  more  to  printing  than  to  authorship,  that  the  consideration  of 
them  may  be  despatched  very  briefly. 

1.  The  Apostrophe  ( ' )  is  a  comma  placed  above  the  line.  It  is 
used  chiefly  to  mark  the  omission  of  a  letter  or  of  letters :  as,  O'er 
for  over. 

2.  The  Hyphen  ( - )  is  used  to  separate  a  compound  word  into  its 
constituent  parts,  or  to  divide  a  word  into  its  syllables  for  the  pur- 
pose of  showing  the  pronunciation ;  as,  Neo-Platonic,  de-riv-a-tive. 

3.  The  Caret  {  \),  used  chiefly  in  manuscript,  shows  where  some- 
thing has  been  omitted,  and  afterward  interlined  ;  as, 

his 
He  has  just  finished  ^  letter. 

4.  The  Index,  or  Hand  (  Jgj^*  )  calls  special  attention  to  a  sub- 
ject; as,  Jg^""  Terms,  invariably  cash  in  advance. 

5.  The  Paragraph  (  T[  ),  inserted  in  a  manuscript,  denotes  that  a 
paragraph  should  begin  at  that  point. 

6.  The  Brace  (  -|    )  is  used  to  connect  several  items  under  one 

head;  as, 

The  Liquids  are 


(r 


7.  Marks  of  Ellipsis  are  sometimes  a  long  dash,  sometimes  a  suc- 
cession of  stars,  or  of  points;  as.  He  denounced  C s  [Congress] 

for  its  venality,  and  threatened  to  impeach  W  *  *  *  [Webster],  and 
A  .  .  .  .  [Adams]. 

8.  The  Accents  are  three,  the  acute  {  ^  ),  the  grave  (  ^  ),  and  the 
circumflex  (  "  ). 

9.  The  marks  of  Quantity  are  three,  the  long  (  ~  ),  the  short  (  «  ), 
and  the  diaeresis  (  ••  ). 

10.  The  Cedilla  is  a  mark  like  a  comma  placed  under  the  letter  c, 

6 


58  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

in  words  taken  from  the  French,  to  denote  that  the  letter  has  in  that 
case  the  sound  of  s;  as,  fa9ade  [pronounced ya-«ao?.] 

11.  Marks  of  Reference  are  the  asterisk  or  star  (*),  the  dagger 
(f ),  the  double  dagger,  (J),  the  section  (  §  ),  parallel  lines  ( [| ),  the 
paragraph  (^). 

12.  Leaders  are  dots  used  to  carry  the  eye  from  words  at  the 
beginning  of  a  line  to  something  at  the  end  with  which  they  are 
connected ;  Thus, 

Orthography, page    7 

Etymology, "14 

Syntax, "87 

13.  Double  Commas  inverted  are  used  to  show  that  a  word  is  to  be 
supplied  from  the  line  above. 

(See  example  under  No.  12,  where  ^^  supplies  the  place  of  the 
word  "page.") 

14.  The  Title-page  of  a  book  is  that  which  contains  the  title,  and 
is  usually  the  first  page. 

15.  Running  Titles,  or  Head-lines,  placed  at  the  top  of  the  page 
to  show  the  subject,  are  usually  printed  in  capitals,  or  small 
capitals. 

16.  Captions,  or  Sub-heads,  are  headings  placed  over  chapters  or 
sections,  but  standing  in  the  body  of  the  page,  not  at  the  top. 

17.  Side-heads  are  titles  run  into,  or  made  part  of,  the  line. 

18.  A  Frontispiece  is  a  picture  opposite  to  the  title-page. 

19.  A  Vignette  is  a  small  picture,  not  occupying  a  full  page,  but 
mixed  up  with  other  matter,  either  on  the  title-page,  or  in  any 
other  part  of  the  book. 

20.  Italics  are  letters  inclined  to  the  right.  They  are  so  called  be- 
cause type  of  this  kind  was  first  used  by  Italian  printers. 

Note  1.  In  manuscript,  one  line  drawn  under  a  word  shows  that  it  should  be  printed 
in  italics;  two  lines,  that  it  should  be  printed  in  small  capitals;  and  three  lines,  that 
it  should  be  printed  in  CAPITALS.  Ordinary  letters  are  called  Roman,  as  opposed 
to  Italic. 

Note  2.  Some  writers  use  Italics  to  mark  emphatic  words.  This  is  a  weak  and 
foolish  device,  and  cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned. 

Note  3.  In  the  English  Bible,  words  are  printed  in  italic  to  show  that  they  ar« 
not  in  the  original,  but  are  supplied  by  the  translators  to  complete  the  meaning. 

21.  The  principal  kinds  of  type  are  the  following: 

Englisli,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o. 
Fica,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r. 

Small  Fica^  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q. 


PUNCTUATION  —  CAPITALS.  59 

Long  Primer,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s. 
Bourgeon,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s,  t,  u,  v. 
Brevier,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s,  t,  u,  v,  w,  x. 
Minion,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s,  t,  u,  v,  w,  x,  y,  z. 
Nonpareil,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s,  t,  u,  t,  w,  x,  y,  z. 
Agate,  a,  b.  c.  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j.  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s,  t.  u,  v.  w,  i,  y,  z. 
Pearl,  a.  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g.  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q.  r,  s,  t,  u,  v,  w,  x,  y,  z. 
Diamond,  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  1,  m,  n,  o,  p,  q,  r,  s,  t,  u,  t,  ir,  x,  j,  %. 

Biilliint.  »,  b,  c,  d,  ..  f.  g,  h.  i.  j,  k.  I,  m.  D.  o,  p.  q,  r,  ..  t,  «.  T,  w,  »,  T,  »# 

22.  Leads  are  thin  plates  of  type-metal,  by  which  the  lines  may  be 
spaced  further  apart.  Matter  thus  spaced  is  said  to  be  leaded.  Matter 
not  leaded  is  called  solid, 

23.  Composing,  as  a  part  of  the  printing  business,  is  putting  matter 
in  type,  or  setting  up  the  type. 

24.  The  amount  of  printed  matter  is  counted  by  ems,  that  is,  by  th« 
number  of  spaces  of  the  length  of  the  letter  m. 

25.  A  Folio  is  a  leaf  or  sheet  of  paper  with  a  single  fold,  that  is, 
making  two  leaves  or  four  pages. 

26.  A  book  is  called  a  Folio  when  the  sheets  on  which  it  is  printed 
are  so  folded  that  each  s8ieet  makes  but  two  leaves.  It  is  called  a 
Quarto,  when  each  sheet  makes  four  leaves ;  an  Octavo,  when  each 
makes  eight  leaves ;  a  Duodecimo,  when  each  makes  twelve  leaves ; 
a  16mo,  18mo,  24mo,  32mo,  48mo,  64mo,  96mo,  &c.,  according  as 
each  sheet  makes  16,  18,  24,  32,  48,  64,  or  96  leaves. 


SECTION    XII. 

Capitals. 

Rule  1.  Title -Pages  and  Headings.  —  Title-pages  and  the  head- 
ings of  chapters  should  be  entirely  in  capitals. 

Note.  Tlie  head-line  of  the  page  is  usually  in  a  kind  of  type  called  small  capitals. 
The  headings  of  sections  smaller  than  a  chapter  are  sometimes  printed  in  small  capi- 
tals, and  sometimes  by  beginning  only  the  principal  words  with  a  capital. 

Rule  2.  The  First  Word  in  a  Book,  &c.  —  The  first  word  of  every 
book,  tract,  essay,  &c.,  and  of  every  chapter  or  section,  also  of 
every  letter,  note,  or  writing  of  any  kind,  should  begin  with  a 
capital. 


60  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

RuLK  3.  The  First  Word  in  a  Sentence. —  The  first  word  of  every 
sentence  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

Rule  4.  Numbered  Clauses. — Clauses,  when  separately  numbered, 
should  begin  with  a  capital,  though  not  separated  from  each  other 
by  a  full-point;  as, — 

This  writer  ass'*rts,  1.  That  Nature  is  unlimited  in  her  operations  ;  2.  That  she  has 
inexhaustible  treasui-es  in  reserve*  3.  That  knowledge  will  always  be  progressive, 
and,  4.  That  all  future  generations  will  continue  to  make  discoveries. 

Rule  5.  The  first  word  after  a  period,  except  when  used  as  an 
abbreviation,  should  begin  with  a  capital. 

Note  1.  The  reason  of  this  is  that  the  period  brings  the  sentence  to  a  close.  The 
first  word  following  it,  therefore,  begins  a  new  sentence,  and  should  have  the  capital, 
according  to  Rule  3,  already  given. 

Note  2.  For  the  same  reason  a  capital  should  follow  the  mark  of  interrogation, 
when  equivalent  to  a  period,  as  it  usually  is, 

Rule  6.  First  Word  of  an  Example.  —  The  first  word  of  a  sentence 
or  clause  which  is  given  as  an  example  should  begin  with  a  capital; 
as,  "Temperance  promotes  health." 

Note.  If  the  example  is  not  a  sentence  or  a  clause,  but  only  a  single  word,  or  a  series 
of  words,  as,  temperance,  fortitude,  honesty,  prudence,  &c.,  no  capital  is  needed. 

Rule  7.  Quoting  Titles.  —  In  quoting  the  title  of  a  book,  every  noun, 
pronoun,  adjective,  and  adverb  should  begin  with  a  capital;  as, 
"Sparks's  Life  of  Washington." 

Rule  8.  First  Word  of  a  Direct  Question. — The  first  word  of  a 
direct  question  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  — 

(Direct  question.)  His  words  are,  "Why  do  you  not  study  the  lesson? " 
(Indirect  question.)  He  desires  to  know  why  you  do  not  study  the  lesson. 

Rule  9.  First  Word  of  a  Direct  Quotation.  —  The  first  word  of  a 
direct  quotation  should  begin  with  a  capital;  as, — 
Plutarch  says,  "  Lying  is  the  vice  of  slaves." 

Note.  If  this  quotation  be  changed  to  the  indirect  form,  no  capital  will  be  needed 
at  the  point  where  the  quotation  begins;  as,  Plutarch  says  that  lying  is  the  vice  of 
slaves. 

Rule  10.  Capitals  Used  for  Figures.  —  Numbers  are  sometimes  rep- 
resented by  capital  letters;  as,  I.,  11.,  III.,  IV.,  &c. 

Note.  In  referring  to  passages  in  books,  it  is  very  common  to  number  the  cliapter, 
book,  sections,  Ac,  in  this  way,  and  to  begin  with  a  capital  each  name  of  the  division 


PUNCTUATION  —  CAPITALS.  61 

mentioned ;  as,  •'  Mill's  Political  Economy,  Vol.  I,  Book  III,  Chap.  IV,  Sec,  VI,  p.  573." 
If  the  references  are  numerous,  this  method  is  found  to  be  cumbersome  and  unsightly, 
and  small  letters  are  preferred ;  as;  "  Mill's  Political  Economy,  vol.  i,  book  iii,  chap, 
iv,  sect,  vi,  p.  573." 

KuLE  11.  The  pronoun  I,  and  the  interjection  0,  should  always  bo 
capital  letters. 

Rule  12.  Poetry.  —  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry  should 
begin  with  a  capital. 

Rule  13.  Names  of  God.  —  All  names  and  titles  of  God  should 
begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  Jehovah,  Father,  Creator,  Almighty,  &c. 

Note  1.  When  any  name  usually  applied  to  the  Supreme  Being  is  used  for  a  created 
being,  it  does  not  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  "  The  Lord  is  a  great  God  above  all  gods:' 
"  Lord  of  lords,  King  of  kings." 

Note  2.  Providence  is  sometimes  used  to  mean  God,  that  is,  the  One  who  provides 
for  us ;  Heaven  likewise  is  used  to  mean  the  One  who  reigns  in  heaven.  In  such 
cases  the  word  should  begin  with  a  capital.  But  if  only  God's  providential  care,  or 
his  place  of  abode  is  meant,  a  capital  is  not  needed. 

Note  3.  The  adjectives  eternal,  universal,  heavenly,  divine,  &c.,  when  applied  to  God, 
need  not  begin  with  a  capital,  unless  something  in  the  particular  instance  makes 
them  emphatic.  Custom,  however,  has  made  capitals  necessary  in  the  following  in- 
stances :  Almighty  God,  Infinite  One,  Supreme  Being,  First  Cause. 

Note  4.  When  an  attribute  of  God  is  expressed,  not  by  an  adjective,  as  in  the  in- 
stances above,  but  by  a  noun  dependent  upon  another  noun,  as  "  Father  of  mercies  " 
for  "  Merciful  Father,"  the  dependent  noun  in  such  combinations  does  not  require  a 
capital. 

Note  5.  "  Son  of  God,"  as  applied  to  our  Saviour,  requires  that  both  nouns  should 
begin  with  a  capital ;  "  Son  of  man  "  requires  no  capital  for  the  latter  noun. 

Note  6.  Great  diversity  prevails  in  regard  to  the  pronouns,  when  referring  to  God. 
Some  axithors,  in  printing  a  hymn  or  a  prayer,  make  the  page  fairly  bristle  with  capi- 
tals, every  pronoun  that  refers  in  any  manner  to  God  being  decorated  in  that  manner. 
The  first  stage  of  this  fancy  is  that  which  prints  in  this  manner  Thou,  Thine,  Thee. 
In  the  second  stage.  He,  His,  Him  are  thus  treated.  The  last  and  highest  stage  shows 
Itself  in  the  relative  pronouns,  Who,  Whose,  and  Whom.  In  the  standard  editions  of 
the  English  Bible,  the  pronouns,  when  referring  to  God,  are  never  printed  in  this 
way,  not  even  in  forms  of  direct  address  to  the  Deity ;  as,  "  But  thou,  0  Lord,  be  mer- 
ciful unto  me,"  &c. 

Rule  14.  Proper  Names.  —  All  proper  names  should  begin  with 
capitals ;  as,  Jupiter,  Mahomet,  Brahma,  Pompey,  Lake  Erie,  Mon- 
day, Good  Friday,  Rome,  China,  France. 

Note  1.  The  word  devil,  when  used  to  designate  Satan,  should  Taegin  with  a  capital ; 
in  all  other  cases,  with  a  small  letter ;  as,  "  The  Devil  and  his  angels."  "  The  devils 
also  believe  and  tremble." 

Note  2.  The  same  persons  who  capitalize  the  first  letter  of  the  pronouns  when  re- 
ferring to  God,  capitalize  the  first  letter  of  heaven  and  full  when  referring  to  tU« 
6*  5 


62  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

abodes  of  the  blessed  and  of  the  lost.  But  such  is  not  the  usage  in  the  Bible,  which 
is  the  most  carefully  printed  book  in  the  language.  "  If  I  ascend  up  into  heaven, 
thou  art  there :  if  I  make  my  bed  in  hell,  behold,  thou  art  there." 

Note  3.  North,  South,  East,  and  West,  when  used  to  denote  certain  parts  of  the 
country  or  of  the  world,  should  begin  with  a  capital;  as,  "This  man  evidently  is  a 
native  of  the  West."  But  when  they  denote  merely  geographical  direction,  they  should 
begin  with  a  small  letter;  as,  "Ohio  lies  west  of  the  Alleghanies." 

Note  4.  When  ^a  name  is  compounded  of  a  proper  name  and  of  some  other  word 
which  is  not  a  proper  name,  connected  by  a  hyphen,  the  part  which  is  not  a  proper 
name  begins  with  a  capital,  if  it  precedes  the  hyphen,  but  with  a  small  letter,  if  it 
follows  the  hyphen;   as,  Pre-Adamite,  New-England,  Sunday-school. 

Rule  15.  Words  derived  from  Proper  Names.  —  Words  derived 
from  proper  names  should  begin  Avith  a  capital ;  as,  Mahometan, 
Brahmin,  Christian,  Roman ;  French,  Spanish,  Grecian ;  to  Chris- 
tianize, to  Judaize,  to  Romanize,  &c. 

Note  1.  The  names  of  religious  sects,  whether  derived  from  proper  names  or  other- 
wise, begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  Christians,  Pagans,  Jews,  Gentiles,  Lutherans,  Calvin- 
ists,  Protestants,  Catholics,  &c.  The  names  of  political  parties  likewise  begin  with 
capitals ;  as  Democrats,  Republicans,  Radicals,  Conservatives,  &c. 

Note  2.  Some  words,  derived  originally  from  proper  names,  have  by  long  and  famil- 
iar usage  lost  all  reference  to  their  origin,  and  are  printed  like  ordinary  words,  with- 
out capitals ;  as,  simony,  damask,  jalap,  godlike,  pldlippic,  to  hector,  to  galvanize,  to 
japan,  &c. 

Rule  16.  Titles  of  Honor  and  Office. —  Titles  of  honor  and  office, 
should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  The  President  of  the  United  States, 
His  Honor  the  Mayor  of  Philadelphia,  President  Madison,  Queen 
Victoria,  Sir  Robert  Murchison,  -Your  Royal  Highness,  &c. 

Note.  When  father,  mother,  hrother,  sister,  uncle,  aunt,  Ac,  immediately  precede  a 
ptoper  name,  some  wi-itera  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  Aunt  Margaret,  Brother  John 
&c.  But  the  tendency  at  present  among  careful  writers  is  to  discontinue  the  use  of 
capitals  in  such  cases.  In  writing  to  a  person  of  his  father,  mother,  &c.,  it  is  customary 
with  some,  as  a  mark  of  respect,  to  use  the  capital ;  as,  "  I  met  your  Father  yesterday." 
In  the  family  circle,  Father  and  Mother  often  become  proper  notuis,  when,  of  course,  they 
take  the  capital.  The  term  father,  when  used  to  denote  one  of  the  early  Christian 
writers,  is  always  printed  with  a  capital ;  as,  "Chrysostom  and  Augustine  are  among 
the  most  voluminous  of  the  Fathers." 

Rule  17.  Subjects  first  introduced. —  In  works  of  a  scientific  char- 
acter,  when  the  subject  of  a  particular  section  is  defined,  or  is  first 
introduced,  it  begins  with  a  capital;  as,  "A  Pronoun  is  a  word  usetll 
instead  of  a  noun." 

Rule  18.  The  Bible. —  A  capital  is  always  used  for  the  terms  ordi- 
narily employed  to  designate  the  Bible,  or  any  particular  part  or 
book  of  the  Bible ;  as.  The  Holy  Bible,  the  Sacred  Writings,  the  Old 


PUNCTUATION  —  EXAMPLES*  63 

Testament,  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the 
Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  the  Revelation,  the  Psalms,  &c.  In  like 
manner,  a  capital  is  used  in  giving  the  names  of  other  sacred  writ- 
ings, as  the  Koran,  the  Zend  Avesta,  the  Puranas,  &c. 

Rule  19.  Words  of  Special  Importance. —  Words  describing  the 
great  events  of  history,  or  extraordinary  things  of  any  kind,  which 
have  acquired  a  distinctive  name,  begin  with  a  capital;  as,  the 
Reformation,  the  Revolution,  the  war  of  Independence,  the  Middle 
Ages,  Magna  Charta,  the  Gulf  Stream,  &c. 

Rule  20.  Personification. —  In  cases  of  strongly  marked  personifi- 
cation, the  noun  personified  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as, — 

"Hope  for  a  season  bade  the  world  farewell. 
And  Freedom  shrieked  as  Kosciusko  fell." 

Note.  This  rule,  like  that  in  regard  to  words  of  special  importa.nce,  requires  dis- 
cretion on  the  part  of  the  writer.  Young  and  inexperienced  writers  are  prone  to 
apply  it  too  frequently. 

Miscellaneous  Examples  for  Practieo. 

[Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  and  make  the  necessary  corrections  in  regard 
to  capitals,  giving  your  reasons  for  each  alteration.] 

1.  Charles  notwithstanding  the  delay  had  left  england  to  work  his 
way  as  best  he  might  out  of  his  Difficulties 

2.  the  scots  therefore  at  the  break  of  day  entered  the  Castle 

3.  Fashion  is  for  the  most  part  the  ostentation  of  Riches 

4.  besides  if  you  labor  in  moderation  it  will  conduce  to  Health  as 
well  as  to  Wealth 

5.  Sir  Peter  Carew  for  some  unknown  reason  had  written  to  &sk 
for  his  pardon 

6.  The  Man  when  He  saw  this  departed 

7.  the  crowd  as  Throgmorton  left  the  court  threw  up  their  caps 
and  shouted 

8.  Elizabeth  who  had  been  requested  to  attend  was  not  present 

9.  The  frost  had  set  in  the  low  damp  ground  was  hard  the  Dykes 
were  frozen 

10.  a  brown  curling  beard  flowed  down  upon  his  chest 

11.  she  thought  the  isle  that  gave  her  birth 
the  sweetest  mildest  land  on  earth 

12.  The  first  Seven  carried  maces  swords  or  pole-axes 

13.  She  plans  provides  expatiates  triumphs  there 

14.  Who  to  the  enraptured  heart  and  ear  and  eye 
Teach  beauty  virtue  truth  and  love  and  melody 


64  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

15.  Give  me  a  sanctified  and  just  a  charitable  and  humble  a  reli- 
gious and  contented  spirit 

16.  Now  a  man  now  a  seraph  and  now  a  beast 

17.  the  dragon  stands  the  hieroglyph  of  evil  and  gnaws  at  the 
tree  of  life 

18.  The  ocelot  a  beautiful  and  striped  fiend  hisses  like  a  snake 

19.  He  that  calls  upon  thee  is  Theodore  the  hermit  of  Teneriflfe 

20.  Hate  madness  ruled  the  hour 

21.  We  saw  a  large  opening  or  inlet 

22.  The  Egyptian  serpent  the  ass-headed  devil  deserves  the  first 
mention  as  among  the  oldest  personifications  of  the  spirit  of  evil 

23.  Well  Sir  Nicholas  what  news 

24.  Zaccheus  make  haste  and  come  down 

25.  The  conspiracy  being  crushed  without  bloodshed  an  inquiry 
into  its  origin  could  be  carried  out  at  leisure 

26.  Thus  preciously  freighted  the  Spanish  fleet  sailed  from  Corunna 

27.  Cruel  and  savage  as  the  persecution  had  become  it  was  still 
inadequate 

28.  Faith  is  opposed  to  infidelity  hope  to  despair  charity  to  enmity 
and  hostility 

29.  Allegory  kills  the  symbolical  as  prose  poetry 

30.  Elizabeth  threw  herself  in  front  of  Marie  Antoinette  exclaim- 
ing I  am  the  queen 

31.  Kant  said  give  me  matter  and  I  will  build  the  world 

32.  Whatever  happens  Mary  exclaims  Elizabeth  I  am  the  wife  of 
the  Prince  of  Spain  crown  rank  life  all  shall  go  before  I  will  take 
any  other  husband. 

33.  In  the  regions  inhabited  by  angelic  natures  unmingled  felicity 
forever  blooms  joy  flows  there  with  a  perpetual  and  abundant  stream 
nor  needs  any  mound  to  check  its  course 

34.  In  this  way  we  learned  that  miss  Steele  never  succeeded  in 
catching  the  doctor  that  Kitty  Bennett  was  satisfactorily  married  by 
a  clergyman  near  Pemberton  that  the  "  considerable  sum  "  given  by 
Mrs.  Norris  to  William  Price  was  one  pound  and  that  the  letters 
placed  by  Churchill  before  Jane  Fairfax  which  she  swept  away 
unread  contained  the  word  pardon 

35.  The  daring  youth  explained  everything  he  presented  philoso- 
phy in  a  familiar  form  he  brought  it  home  to  men's  bosoms  he  made 
all  smooth  and  easy 

36.  Then  he  shivers  his  sword  in  pieces  he  longs  to  die  the  yeins 
of  his  neck  start  out  they  burst  his  noble  blood  wells  forth 


PUNCTUATION  —  EXAMPLES.  65 

87.  Ars  in  latin  is  the  contrary  of  in-ers  it  is  the  contrary  of  in-ac- 
tion  it  is  action 

38.  Make  hay  while  the  sun  shines  for  clouds  will  surely  come 

39.  there  are  five  moods  the  indicative  the  potential  the  subjunc- 
tive the  imperative  and  the  infinitive 

40.  Princes  have  courtiers  and  merchants  have  partners  the  volup- 
tuous have  companions  and  the  wicked  have  accomplices  none  but 
the  virtuous  have  friends 

41.  in  his  last  Moments  He  uttered  these  words  i  fall  a  sacrifice 
to  sloth  and  luxury 

42.  Length  n  A  S  lengdh  equivalent  to  lengu  lencg  from  lang  long 
the  longest  measure  of  any  object  in  distinction  from  depth  thickness 
breadth  or  width  the  extent  of  anything  from  end  to  end  the  longest 
line  which  can  be  drawn  through  a  body  parallel  to  its  sides  as  the 
length  of  a  church  the  length  of  a  rope  * 

43.  John  Tillotson  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  obtained  great  cele- 
brity as  a  preacher  his  sermons  at  his  death  were  purchased  for  no 
less  sum  than  two  thousand  five  hundred  guineas  they  continue  to 
the  present  time  to  be  read  and  to  be  held  in  high  estimation  as 
instructive  rational  and  impressive  discourses 

44.  Sir  Roger  L'Estrange  enjoyed  in  the  reigns  of  Charles  II  and 
James  VII  great  notoriety  as  an  occasional  political  writer  he  is 
known  also  as  a  translator  having  produced  versions  of  Esop's 
Fables  Seneca's  Morals  Cicero's  offices  Erasmus's  Colloquies  Queve- 
do's  Visions  and  the  works  of  Josephus 

46.  Another  lively  describer  of  human  character  who  flourished 
in  this  period  was  Dr  Walter  Charleton  physician  to  Charles  II  a 
friend  of  Hobbes  and  for  several  years  president  of  the  college  of 
physicians  in  London 

46.  Bacchanalian  pertaining  to  the  festivals  of  Bacchus  the  god 
of  wine  which  were  celebrated  by  a  triumphal  procession  wherein 
men  and  women  went  about  rioting  dancing  and  indulging  in  all 
sorts  of  licentious  extravagance 

47.  Horologe  horo  hour  and  loge  that  which  tells  or  notes  is  from 
two  greek  words  signifying  together  that  which  tells  the  hour  a  sun 
dial  a  clock  a  timepiece  • 

48.  Bacon  Francis  usually  known  as  Lord  bacon  was  born  in 
London  England  Jan  22  1560  and  died  1626  he  was  famous  as  a 

*  The  teacher  may  multiply  indefinitely  examples  of  this  kind  by  referring  to  any 
large  Dictionary  containing  the  derivation  and  definition  of  words.  Such  exercises 
are  of  the  greatest  importance  and  value  in  teaching  punctuation.  A  like  xise  majr 
be  made  of  the  sums  in  Arithmetic  and  Algebra. 


66  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

scholar  a  wit  a  lawyer  a  judge  a  statesman  a  politician  but  chiefly 
as  a  philosopher 

49.  Early  one  morning  they  came  to  the  estate  of  a  wealthy  farmer 
they  found  him  standing  before  the  stable  and  heard  as  they  drew 
near  that  he  was  scolding  one  of  his  men  because  he  had  left  the 
ropes  with  which  they  tied  their  horses  in  the  rain  all  night  instead 
of  putting  them  away  in  a  dry  place  ah  we  shall  get  very  little  here 
said  one  to  the  other  that  man  is  very  close  we  will  at  least  try  said 
another  and  they  approached 

50.  The  clear  conception  outrunning  the  deductions  of  logic  the 
high  purpose  the  firm  resolve  the  dauntless  spirit  speaking  in  the 
tongue  beaming  from  the  eye  informing  every  feature  and  urging 
the  whole  man  onward  right  onward  to  his  object  this  this  is  elo- 
quence or  rather  it  is  something  greater  and  higher  than  all  elo- 
quence it  is  action  noble  sublime  godlike  action 

51.  But  it  will  be  urged  perhaps  sir  in  behalf  of  the  California 
gold  that  though  one  crop  only  of  gold  can  be  gathered  from  the 
same  spot  yet  once  gathered  it  lasts  to  the  end  of  time  while  our 
vegetable  gold  is  produced  only  to  be  consumed  is  gone  forever  but 
this  Mr  president  would  be  a  most  egregious  error  both  ways 

52.  Polonius  do  you  know  me  my  Lord 
Hamlet  excellent  well  you  are  a  fishmonger 
Pol  not  I  my  lord 

Ham  Then  I  would  you  were  so  honest  a  man 
Pol  honest  my  lord 

Ham  ay  sir  to  be  honest  as  this  world  goes  is  to  be  one  man 
picked  out  of  ten  thousand 
Pol  that's  very  true  my  lord 
Ham  Have  you  a  daughter 
Pol  I  have  my  lord 


J  J 


0 


CHAPTER  11. 


Diction. 


Diction  is  that  pgrt  of  Rhetoric  which  treats  of  the  selec- 
tion and  the  right  use  of  words. 

Command  of  Words  Important. — No  one  can  be  successful  as  a 
writer  or  a  speaker,  who  has  not  a  great  number  of  words  at  his 
command,  and  who  has  not  such  a  knowledge  of  the  precise  meaning 
of  each  as  to  be  able  in  all  cases  to  select  just  that  word  which  ex- 
presses most  perfectly  tie  idea  intended. 

How  Obtained. — It  is  not  in  the  power  of  "rules  to  give  one  a 
command  of  words.  To  this  end,  two  things  chiefly  are  necessary ; 
an  enlarged  course  of  reading,  and  a  habit  of  observation  in  regard 
to  the  words  met  with.  Linguistic  studies  are  particularly  suited  to 
enlarge  one's  vocabulary.  Habitual  association  with  persons  of  edu- 
cation and  refinement  has  likewise  a  tendency  to  increase  one's  stock 
of  words.  Some  persons  have  by  nature  a  special  talent  for  this 
species  of  acquisition,  and  words  on  almost  every  subject  seem  to 
come  at  their  bidding.  Such  a  talent,  whether  natural  or  acquired, 
is  of  the  greatest  importance. 

Extemporaneous  Translation. — One  method,  strongly  recommended 
by  Prof.  Marsh,*  for  acquiring  a  ready  and  wide  command  of  words, 
is  the  practice  of  extemporaneous  translation,  that  is,  of  reading  off 
into  English  a  book,  or  a  newspaper,  which  is  in  a  foreign  language. 
Authors  who  are  accustomed  to  express  only  their  own  thoughts,  form 
for  themselves  unconsciously  a  comparatively  narrow  vocabulary.  The 
practice  of  extemporaneous  translation  forces  one  into  new  trains  of 
thought,  demanding  new  words  and  forms  of  expression,  and  thus 
enlarges  continually  his  vocabulary,  and  lifts  him  out  of  the  rut  of 


*  Lectures  on  the  English  Language,  by  G.  P.  Marsh,  p.  616. 


67 


68  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

pet  words  and  stereotyped  phrases  into  which  he  would  otherwise 
fall. 

Habit  of  Referring  to  the  Dictionary.  —  For  acquiring  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  words,  much  may  be  done  by  judicious 
training,  both  at  home  and  at  school.  Students  should  be  sent  to  the 
dictionary,  every  hour  of  the  day,  and  in  every  exercise  where  a 
question  can  arise  as  to  the  meaning  of  a  word,  until  the  habit  is 
fully  established,  in  the  mind  of  the  learner,  of  giving  a  peremptory 
challenge  to  every  word  whose  meaning  is  not  thoroughly  known. 

Study  of  Etymology. — A  proper  study  of  the  etymology  of  words, 
with  suitable  exercises  for  practice  in  combining  them,  conduces  to 
the  same  end;  and  for  this  purpose,  a  good  manual  of  instruction  in 
the  derivation  and  meaning  of  words  is  an  indispensable  requisite  of 
the  school-room.* 

Divisions  of  the  Subject.  —  The  qualities  of  Style  most 
needed,  so  far  as  Diction  is  concerned,  are  Purity,  Propriety, 
and  Precision. 

Note.  These  topics  have,  in  former  treatises  on  Rhetoric,  been  treated  under  the 
head  of  Sentences.  But  they  clearly  belong  to  the  subject  of  Diction.  They  are  attri- 
butes, not  of  sentences,  but  of  words,  the  materials  out  of  which  sentences  are  made. 

>;^N  I.     PURITY. 

Diction,  when  Pure. — An  author's  diction  is  pure  when 
he  uses  such  words  only  as  belong  to  the  idiom  of  the  lan- 
guage, in  opposition  to  words  that  are  foreign,  obsolete,  newly 
coined,  or  without  proper  authority. 

Standard  of  Purity. — The  only  standard  of  purity  is  the 
practice  of  the  best  writers  and  speakers.  A  violation  of 
purity  is  called  a  Barbarism. 

1.  Foreign  'Words, 
Pedantry  and  Affectation.  —  It  savors  of  pedantry  and  affectation  to 
introduce  unnecessarily  into  discourse  words  from  foreign  languages, 
as  from  the  French,  the  Latin,  and  so  forth.  This  fault  is  most  com- 
mon with  persons  whose  attainments  are  comparatively  limited, 
and  who  are  ambitious  of  showing  off  what  little  learning  they  have. 
Ripe  scholars,  whose  knowledge  of  languages  is  extensive  and  pro-  j  . 
found,  rarely  interlard  their  discourse  with  foreign  terms.  y^ 

*  Webb's  Model  Etymology  is  recommended  as  an  excellent  manual  for  this  purpose. 


DICTION PUEITY.  69 

Foreign  Words  Domesticated.  —  Sometimes  a  foreign  word  acquires  a 
special  historical  significance,  or  it  is  adopted,  unchanged  from  its 
original  form,  as  an  English  word ;  as,  the  fiat  of  the  Almighty,  the 
shibboleth  of  party,  the  palladium  of  liberty,  an  ignis  fatuus,  an  igno- 
ramus,  a  cabal,  a  quorum,  an  omnibus,  an  incognito,  an  anathema,  an 
item,  a  paradise.  In  such  cases,  where  the  foreign  word  is  one  whose 
meaning  has  become  familiar  to  ordinary  readers, — when,  in  fact,  it 
expresses  that  meaning  more  precisely  than  any  translation  could  do, — 
there  may  be  more  pedantry  in  translating  the  word  than  in  using  it 
in  the  form  with  which  the  public  is  already  familiar. 


2.  Obsolete  Words  — New  Words, 
No  Absolute  Standard. — A  word  is  not  necessarily  to  be  rejected 
because  it  is  new.  New  words  are  continually  coming  into  use. 
This  is  the  general  law  of  all  languages.  So  long  as  they  are  living 
languages,  they  are  subject  to  perpetual  change,  old  words  dropping 
out  and  new  ones  coming  in.  No  absolute  rule  can  be  given  for  deter- 
mining when  an  old  word  has  become  so  far  obsolete  as  to  make  it 
unsafe  any  longer  to  use  it,  or  when  a  new  word  has  sufficient  sanction 
from  writers  and  speakers  to  give  it  a  claim  to  be  considered  good 
English.     A  few  examples  will  illustrate  this. 

Tliroughly,  formed  legitimately  from  the  preposition  through,  was  staple  English  in 
the  time  of  Spenser.   It  is  now  obsolete,  except  for  the  purpose  of  quaiutness  or  drollery. 

OutsidAr.  —  No  one  now  would  hesitate  to  use  the  word  outsider.  Yet  prior  to  the 
convention  which  in  1844  nominated  Mr.  Polk  for  the  Presidency,  the  word  had  no 
better  claim  to  being  English  than  insider,  undersider,  uppersider,  rightsider,  leftsider, 
Ac.  At  that  convention,  according  to  Prof.  Marsh,  w^hen  an  undue  pressure  was  made 
upon  the  delegates,  by  those  from  without  who  were  not  delegates,  some  one,  with  a 
happy  audacity  of  language,  described  it  as  a  pressure  from  the  "  outsiders ;  "  and  this 
term,  caught  up  by  the  reporters,  so  suited  the  convenience  of  the  public  that  it  went 
at  once  into  general  circulation,  and  it  has  since  fairly  established  itself  as  a  constitu- 
ent part  of  the  language. 

Intensify. — It  is  rather  startling  to  be  told  that  the  word  "intensify"  is  not  yet  fifty 
years  old.  Coleridge,  in  his  Biographia  Literaria,*  tells  us  that  he  deliberately  coined 
the  word,  because  there  was  no  other  in  existence  to  express  a  particular  shade  of 
meaning  which  he  wished  to  convey. 

Starvation  was  first  used  by  Henry  Dundas  in  1775,  in  a  speech  in  Parliament, 
which  obtained  for  him  the  name  of  Starvation  Dundas.  It  was  supposed  to  be  the 
only  instance  of  a  noun  formed  by  adding  the  Latin  ending  -ation  to  a  Saxon  root, 
but  fiirtation  is  a  similar  example. 

Sculptor,  peninsula,  suicide,  opera,  and  umbrella,  were  unknown  to  the  English 
tongue  until  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  f 

*  P.  238,  Harper's  edition. 

t  Trench  on  "  Deficiencies  in  our  English  Dictionaries,"  p.  40,  and  p.  51,  in  "  Trans* 
actions  of  the  Philological  Society  "  for  1857. 

7 


70  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Beutley  in  the  last  century  had  to  defend  himself  for  using  such  novelties  as  rtpu^ 
diat&,' concede,  vernacular,  timid,  and  idiom.  * 

Campbell,  in  his  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  first  published  in  1776,  marks  the  following 
words  as  so  far  obsolete  as  not  to  be  allowable  in  ordinary  prose :  tribulation,  behest, 
erewhile,  ignore,  adroitness,  and  he  hesitates  about  the  following  words  on  account 
of  the  newness  of  their  introduction :  continental,  sentimental,  originality,  criminality, 
capability,  originate. 

Suspended  Animation  of  Words.  —  Words  frequently  pass  out  of  use 
for  a  time,  and  then  resume  their  place  in  literature  again,  and  this 
suspended  animation  of  words,  followed  by  a  revival  and  restoration 
to  full  activity,  is  one  of  the  most  curious  facts  in  the  history  of  lan- 
guage. 

The  word  reckless  was  in  current  use  until  after  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
eentury.  It  then  became  so  nearly  obsolete  that  Hooker,  who  used  it  in  1650,  felt 
obliged  to  explain  it  in  a  marginal  note.  It  has  since  been  revived,  and  is  now  thor- 
oughly familiar  to  every  English-speaking  person,  f 

Abate  and  abandon,  which,  after  an  active  existence  of  some  centuries,  fell  into  dis- 
use in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  were  so  marked  in  the  dictionary,  are  now  again 
a  part  of  current  English. 

Kind  of  New  Words  to  be  Avoided. —  A  writer  who  is  careful  of  the 
purity  of  his  diction  will  avoid  any  new  word,  no  matter  how  dis- 
tinguished the  author  by  whom  it  has  been  introduced,  if  it  is  formed 
in  a  manner  contrary  to  the  genius  of  the  language.  i^    -rJ 

a  ^ 

{]  y^  Law  of  Verbal  Formation.  —  One  of  the  laws  of  verbal  formation  is 
that  the  component  parts  of  a  word  should  be  of  similar  linguistic 
origin.  This  rule  is  violated  when  a  word  is  made  up  of  two  parts, 
one  of  which  is  Saxon,  the  other  Greek  or  Latin.  For  example ;  the 
termination  -itt/,  which  is  of  Latin  origin,  corresponds  in  meaning  to 
the  termination  -ness,  which  is  Saxon.  The  Latin  ending,  therefore, 
is  used  in  making  words  from  Latin  stems,  as  cavity  from  c^u-us, 
unity  from  un-us,  purity  from  pur-us,  brevity  from  brev-is,  acidity 
from  acid-ns.  In  like  manner,  the  Saxon  ending  is  used  in  making 
words  from  Saxon  stems,  as  hollow-new  from  hollow,  one-ness  from 
one,  a&me-ness  from  same,  sour-nes*  from  sour.  Thus  also  telegraph, 
telegraphic,  telegram  are  legitimate  formations,  the  various  component 
parts  tele,  graph,  gram,  and  ic  being  Greek.  But  cable-graph  and  cable- 
gram are  barbarisms,  the  first  part  of  the  compound  being  from  one 
language,  the  latter  part  from  another.     Ambrotype  and  electrotype  are 


*  Preface  to  Dissertations  upon  Phalaris,  p.  liv. 
t  Mai-sh,  p.  179. 


DICTION  —  PURITY.  71 

legitimate,  ivorytype  is  barbarous.     Mongrel  formations  of  this  kind 
should  be  avoided. 

Law  of  Formation  not  Universal.  —  The  rule  given  above,  in  regard 
to  the  formation  of  words,  is  however  far  from  being  universal. 
Thus  appositeness  is  a  good  word,  although  formed  with  a  Saxon  end- 
ing upon  a  Latin  stem. 

Both  Modes  of  Formation  on  the  Same  Stem.  —  In  many  cases  the  same 
stem  gives  two  words  of  like  meaning,  one  with  a  Saxon,  the  other  with  a  Latin  end- 
ing, as  purity  pureness,  credibility  credibleness.  In  such  cases,  the  one  formed  regu- 
larly, that  is,  with  stem  and  ending  both  from  the  same  source,  is  generally  a  better 
word  than  the  other,  as  it  is  in  the  instance  last  given,  credibility  being  a  better  word 
than  credibleness. 

Safe  Plan  in  regard  to  New  Words. —  The  safe  plan  in  regard  to 
new  words  is  not  to  be  in  a  hurry  about  using  them.  A  writer  has 
before  him,  for  his  selection,  such  an  abundance  of  words,  about 
which  there  can  be  no  question,  that  a  case  can  rarely  occur,  in 
which  the  use  of  a  doubtful  word  is  necessary.  We  may  indeed 
have  occasion  to  speak  of  a  new  invention,  or  a  new  idea,  for  which 
there  is  no  word  but  that  originating  with  the  invention  or  the  idea 
itself.  In  such  a  case,  of  course,  we  need  not  hesitate  about  using 
the  new  word.  But  in  all  ordinary  cases,  the  safest  plan  for  a 
writer  or  a  speaker  is  to  select  only  well-known  and  fully  accredited 
words,  in  preference  either  to  those  which  have  become  partially 
obsolete  and  uncurrent,  or  to  those  which  by  reason  of  the  fresh- 
ness of  their  coinage  are  still  of  doubtful  currency. 

Pope's  Rule. —  The  rule  is  well  stated  by  Pope,  in  his  Essay  on 
Criticism  : 

In  words,  as  fashions,  the  same  rule  will  hold ; 
Alike  fantastic,  if  too  new  or  old ; 
Be  not  the  first  by  whom  the  new  are  tried, 
Nor  yet  the  last  to  lay  the  old  aside.* 

In  discussing  the  subject  of  purity  of  diction,  I  have  thus  far  spoken  of  words 
which  are  wanting  in  this  respect  by  reason  of  their  haing  foreign,  obsolete,  orneivly 
coined.    It  rematns  to  speak  of  those  which  want  proper  authority. 

3.  Words  without  Proper  Authority. 
The  Question. — What  constitutes  the  Proper  Authority  for  the  use 

*  The  student  should  commit  these  lines  thoroughly  to  memory. 


72  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

of  a  word  ?     What  is  the  court  in  the  last  resort,  which  determines 
beyond  appeal  whether  a  word  is,  or  is  not,  good  English? 

The  Answer. —  If  a  people,  by  common  consent,  use  a  particular 
word  to  mean  a  certain  thing,  that  word  is  a  part  of  the  language 
of  that  people. 

The  Dictum  of  Horace.  —  The  dictum  of  Horace  *  to  this  effect  has 
received,  I  believe,  the  general  assent  of  the  critics,  and  it  may  now 
be  considered  as  a  part  of  the  undisputed  creed  of  the  learned, 
namely,  that  Use  is  the  law  of  language,  whether  for  single  words, 
grammatical  forms,  or  grammatical  constructions. 

Danger  of  Misconception.  —  But  the  law  as  thus  expressed  is  liable 
to  many  misconceptions.  •It  needs,  therefore,  some  special  limita- 
tions and  definitions,  in  order  to  make  it  practically  useful  for  the 
purpose  of  determining,  in  any  particular  case,  whetlier  a  word  is 
right  or  wrong. 

Campbell's  Essay. — No  one  has  written  on  this  point  with  more 
clearness  and  comprehensiveness  than  Dr.  Campbell,  in  his  Philos- 
ophy of  Rhetoric,  before  quoted.  His  extended  chapter  on  "  The 
Nature  and  Characters  of  the  Use  which  gives  Law  to  Language,"  is 
exhaustive  of  the  subject,  and  should  be  studied  by  every  one  who 
wishes  to  enter  into  the  matter  fully,  f 

The  results  at  which  Campbell  arrives,  and  in  which  all  critics  since 
his  day  have  acquiesced,  may  be  summed  up  as  follows:  '^^^^'^""^''^ 

Oampbell's  Law.  —  The  Use  which  determines  authori- 
tatively whether  a  word  is  legitimate  must  have  these 
three  marks : 

1.  It  must  be  Reputable,  or  that  of  educated  people,  as 
opposed  to  that  of  the  ignorant  and  vulgar. 

2.  It  must  be  National,  as  opposed  to  what  is  either  local 
or  technical. 

3.  It  must  be  Present,  as  opposed  to  what  is  obsolete. 

♦      "  U8U8, 

Qnern  penes  arbitrium  est  et  Jus  et  norma  loquendi." — Hor.  De  ArU,  Poet. 
+  For  tho  convenience  of  those  readers  who  may  not  have  accesH  to  Campbell's  work, 
an  abstract  of  his  argument  is  given  at  the  end  of  the  present  chapter. 


DICTION  —  PURITY.  73 

\. 
The  Way  to  Find  these  Marks.  — The  only  way  to  ascertain  that  a 
word  has  these  characters  is  to  find  it  so  used  in  the  majority  of 
writers  of  good  reputation.  In  all  ordinary  cases,  we  refer  to  a 
Dictionary,  since  it  is  the  duty  of  a  lexicographer  to  ascertain  these 
facts  by  research,  and  to  mark  them  in  his  work.  In  the  best  works 
of  this  kind,  ^very  word  that  is  admitted  to  a  place  in  the  Dictionary 
is  assumed  to  have  these  characters,  unless  the  lexicographer  dis- 
tinctly marks  the  word  as  being  obsolete,  vulgar,  provincial,  technical, 
&c. ;  and,  in  very  many  cases,  passages  from  authors  of  reputation 
are  quoted,  to  show  how  the  word  is  used. 

Note.  The  study  of  Diction  is  a  necessary  incident  of  every  other  study.  We  can- 
not learn  any  branch  of  knowledge  without,  at  the  same  time,  and  by  the  same  act, 
becoming  familiar  with  the  woms  in  which  that  knowledge  is  conveyed.  Still  some 
special  study  of  the  subject  is  desirable;  and,  to  facilitate  such  a  study,  the  following 
Exercises  have  been  prepared.  The  words  given  below  are  arranged  in  lists  of  ten 
for  mere  convenience.  They  are  selected  with  reference  to  the  question  of  Purity, 
under  some  one  or  more  of  the  heads  now  considered,  namely,  foreign,  obsolete, 
newly  coined,  withotU  proper  authority.  To  test  the  better  the  student's 
knowledge,  and  to  exercise  his  judgment,  the  words  are  put  together  promiscuously, 
and  part  of  them  are  entirely  legitimate.  The  student  will  need  of  course  a  good 
Dictionary  for  preparing  himself  on  these  exercises;  and  if  he  have  access  to  one  of 
the  large  quartos,  all  the  better. 

The  points  to  be  considered  in  regard  to  a  word  are  the  following : 

1.  Is  it  a  foreign  word?  If  so,  has  it  been  thoroughly  domesticated  as  good 
English  ?  or  would  its  use  savor  of  pedantry  ? 

2.  Is  it  a  word  which  was  once  in  use,  but  is  now  obsolete  ?  What  was  its  meaning 
when  it  was  used  ? 

3.  Is  it  a  neto  word  ?  If  so,  has  it  been  in  use  long  enough  to  become  legitimate  ? 
or  would  its  use  be  considered  doubtful  ? 

4.  Is  there  any  irregularity  in  the  formation  of  the  word? — if  so,  is  the  irregu- 
larity suflBcient  to  condemn  it  ? 

5.  Is  the  word  vulgar,  technical,  provincial,  or  in  any  way  unsuited  for  com- 
mon use?  * 

6.  In  every  case,  give  the  meaning  and  the  etymology  of  the  word,  and  the  authority 
on  which  it  is  pronoimced  legitimate  or  otherwise. 

7.  Whenever  possible,  quote  Extracts  from  known  authors  in  illustration  of  the 
opinion  pronounced. 

These  extracts  may  be  brought  in  ready  written,  but  the  other  part  of  the  work 
should  be  done  in  the  class-room,  in  the  same  manner  as  any, other  part  of  the  recita- 
tion. The  student  has  a  model  of  what  he  is  to  learn  and  to  say,  in  regard  to  each 
word,  in  what  is  said  of  the  several  words  introduced  and  explained  on  pages  66,  67. 

Exercises  on  Purity  of  Diction. 

(1.  Cisatlantic,  alamode,  waitress,  exit,  plebiscitum,  depot,  role, 
ultimatum,  mulierosity,  aborigines. 
2.  Gallantness,  obloquy,  incertain,  talkist,  resurrected,  periculous, 
DttGonrise,  docible,  cockney,  alibi. 
■^         7* 


74  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORIC. 

8.    Jeopardize,    preventative,    orate,    memento,    n6e,    herbarium, 
soundness,  currentness,  boyish,  locate. 

4.  Confutement,  civilist,  expenseless,  peristyle,  opaque,  populos- 
ity,  soup9on,  finale,  blas6,  alias. 
^^5.  Controversialist,   kraal,  lapidary,  leniency,   distingu^,  feuille- 
\li>n,  protege,  verbatim,  rendezvous,  surtout. 

6.  Imprimatur,  sangfroid,  upholstery,  traducement,  walkist,  pro- 
faneness,  atelier,  enthused,  thirster,  optigraph. 

7.  Septemfluous,    spendthrift,    confutant,    caviare,   underlauded, 
faleslady,  amende,  employe,  equidistant,  terra  cotta. 

8.  Impromptu,  pot-pourri,  efilorescence,  fabulosity,  rootfastness, 
-«liediential,  elocutist,  disillusioned,  rampage,  bookish. 

9.  Ungallantry,  discursiveness,  optable,  amour  propre,  residuum, 
parvenu,  vesper,  rebus,  acrobat,  fauteuil, 

10.  Soidisant,  rotatory,  mandamus,  nom  de  plume,  siesta,  curi- 
ousness,  fashionist,  skedaddle,  bootless,  oppressure. 

rll.  MisafFected,  insulse,  exorableness,  verily,  spirituel,  casuality, 
matin,  patois,  elegy,  instanter. 

12.  Aifidavit,  conversationist,  donate,  dilettante,  on  dit,  junta,  per- 
siflage, tapis,  circumambient,  debatement. 

13.  Disobedientness,  optation,  chef-doeuvre,  fete,  plateau,  occi- 
dental, avoidance,  admonishment,  mulish,  misdevotion. 

To  THE  Teacher.  1.  If  any  of  the  words  in  the  foregoing  lists  are  not  to  be  found 
in  the  dictionary  to  wliich  the  student  has  access,  tlie  student  should  of  course  be 
relieved  from  censure  for  not  being  prepared  on  tliese  particular  words.  2.  The 
teacher  should  make  a  note  of  all  barbarisms  in  Diction  which  he  hears  in  the  class, 
and  use  such  words  for  additional  examples.  3.  Exercises  of  this  kind  should  be  con- 
tinued until  a  habit  of  attention  to  the  subject  is  firmly  fixed  in  the  mind  of  the 
student. 

II.    PROPRIETY. 

^  Difference  between  Purity  and  Propriety  of  Diction.  — 
Purity  of  dictioil ^refers  simply  to  the  question  whether  a 
word  is,  or  is  not,  in  good  and  current  use,  as  an  established 
part  of  the  language.  But  another  question  arises  in  regard 
to  every  word  used  in  discourse.  Is  the  word  used  correctly 
in  the  sentence  in  which  it  occurs?  The  word  may  be  a 
perfectly  good  word,  and  yet  it  may  not  express  the  mean- 
ing which  the  writer  evidently  intended  to  express.  A 
writer  who  fails  in  this  respect  offends  against  Propriety. 
This,  then,  is  the  second  point  to  which  a  writei  or  a  speaker 


DICTION  —  PROPRIETY.  75 

should  attend.  He  should  see  that  every  word  which  he  uses 
conveys  exactly  the  meaning  which  he  wishes  to  convey. 

Means  of  Attaining  Propriety.  —  To  attain  propriety  of  diction,  the 
chief  means  are  a  frequent  use  of  the  Dictionary,  and  a  constant  ob- 
servation of  the  way  in  which  words  are  used  in  good  authors.  A 
study  of  the  derivation  of  words  is  also  a  help  in  ascertaining  their 
meaning.  But  this  source  of  information  is  to  be  used  with  some 
caution,  as  many  words  acquire  in  actual  use  a  meaning  very  differ- 
ent from  that  which  their  etymology  would  suggest. 

Examples. — A  few  examples  are  given  of  words  whose  meaning 
has  changed  from  that  indicated  by  the  etymology. 

Prevent,  which  means  etymologically,  and  whichonce  meant  actually,  to  go  before,* 
now  means  to  hinder. 

Resent  means  etymologically  to  reciprocate,  or  respond  to,  any  kind  of  feeling,  good 
or  bad,  and  it  once  actually  had  this  meaning.  Three  centuries  ago  a  man  could 
speak  of  resenting  a  benefit,  as  well  as  resenting  an  injury.  The  use  of  later  times  has 
restricted  the  ward  to  the  single  meariing. 

Censure  has  undergone  a  like  change.  Originally,  it  meant  to  express  any  kind  of 
opinion,  favorable  or  unfavorable ;  f  now  it  refers  to  that  only  which  is  unfavorable. 

Liquidate  meant  originally  to  melt,  to  change  from  a  solid  to  a  liquid  state.  Next, 
it  meant  to  make  clear,  or  transparent,  and  this  meaning  it  bore  down  to  a  compara- 
tively recent  date.  "Time  only  can  liquidate  the  meaning  of  all  parts  of  a  compound 
system."  —  Hamilton.    Now,  the  word  means  to  pay  off  debts. 

Admire,  in  the  time  of  Milton,  was  still  used  in  its  Latin  sense,  to  wonder  at.  Now 
it  means  only  to  regard  with  esteem  and  reverence.* 

Spenser  speaks  of  a  "chapel  edified,''''  meaning  built;  a  modem  poet  would  speak  of 
edifying  the  hearers,  not  the  building. 

Milton  speaks  of  his  matter  being  "  new  or  insolent,''''  meaning  unusual,  unaccustomed. 
In  like  manner  he  "provokes"  [challenges]  his  antagonist  to  a  trial  of  the  truth. 

0erk  was  originally  a  cfergy^an ;  in  Chaucer,  he  is  a  college  student ;  now,  he  is  a 
young  man  who  keeps  accounts,  or  sells  tape  and  buttons. 

Station  is  used  by  Shakspeare  for  the  manner  of  standing,  posture ;  now  it  means 
lace.  X 

()  Violations  of  Propriety. —  This  part  of  the  subject  may  be  best  illus- 
trated by  quoting  a  few  instances  of  words  used  improperly. 

Predicate.  —  In  a  leading  editorial  of  one  of  the  New  York  daily  newspapers,  I  read 
this  sentence :  "  It  is  impossible  at  the  present  moment  to  predicate  what  will  be  the 
issue  of  the  pending  contest."  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  to  predicate  is  simply 
to  affirm  in  regard  to  whkt  already  is,  whereas  to  predict  is  to  foretell  the  future.  The 
impropriety  of  tlie  use  of  predicate  here  given  is  so  obvious  that  I  should  not  have 

*  "1  prevented  the  dawning  of  the  morning."  Ps.  119:  147,  and  so  throughout  the 
Psalms. 

f  When  Brutus,  in  the  play  of  Julius  Caesar,  says  to  the  Romans,  "  Censtire  me  in 
your  wisdom,"  he  does  not  ask  them  to  condemn  him,  but  only  to  judge  him,  —  to 
decide  for  or  against  him. 

J  "  A  station  like  the  herald  Mercury, 
New-lighted  on  a  heaven-kissing  hill." 

HamUt,  Act  III,  Sc.  IV. 


^0 


76  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

quoted  It,  had  not  frequent  instances  come  to  my  notice  of  ita  being  used  in  this  way 
in  publications  of  respectable  standing  and  character. 

Mutual  is  frequently  used  improperly  in  the  sense  of  common.  "  Mutual  "  always 
implies  reciprocity.  It  describes  that  which  passes  from  each  to  each  of  two  persons. 
Rom.  1 :  12.  "That  I  may  be  comforted  by  the  mutual  faith  both  of  you  and  me,"  that 
Is,  "by  my  confidence  in  you  and  your  confidence  in  me."  Ilere  the  word  is  used  with 
entire  correctness.  In  like  manner  we  may  say  "  tlie  mutual  love  of  man  and  wife." 
But  it  is  mere  nonsense  to  speak  of  the  "miitu/il  friend  of  both  man  and  wife."  John 
and  James  may  be  mutual  friends,  that  is,  the  friendship  between  them  may  be  recip- 
rocal, John  being  friendly  to  James,  and  James  being  friendly  to  John.  John  and 
James  also  may  have  a  common  friend,  Peter,  but  it  would  be  absurd  to  speak  of  Peter 
as  being  on  this  account' their  mutual  friend.  The  word  "  mutual"  designates  what 
is  reciprocal  between  two,  not  something  in  one  which  is  common  to  two  or  more 
others. 

Except  is  sometimes  improperly  used  for  unless.  "  Except,"  whether  a  verb  or  a 
preposition,  requires  after  it  an  objective  case ;  as,  "  They  all  came  except  Mary  and 
Alice."  But  to  say  "They  all  refused  to  come  except  Mary  and  Alice  would"  is  using 
the  word  as  a  conjunction.  The  proper  word  in  such  cases  is  unless.  Without  is  like- 
wise often  used  in  the  same  way  for  unless.  "  I  will  not  go  to  the  city  without  [un- 
less] you  do."  Except  is  also  sometimes  used  improperly  in  the  sense  of  besides.  "  Few 
men  except  [besides]  Cajsar  would  have  dared  to  cross  the  Rubicon." 

iifce.— Another  word  often  used  incorrectly  is  like.  The  word  is  correct  whenever 
it  would  be  proper  to  supply  "  to  "  after  it ;  as,  "  The  daughter  is  like  [to]  her  mother." 
"  lie  fought  like  [to]  a  lion."  But  many  careless  speakers  and  writers  use  it  for  as,  or 
at  if.    "  I  wish  I  could  write  like  [as]  you  do."   "  He  behaved  like  [as  if]  he  was  mad." 

Avocation  is  used  incorrectly  for  vocation.  "  Vocation "  is  one's  business,  occupa- 
tion, or  calling.  "Avocation"  is  properly  the  act  of  calling  aside,  or  diverting  from 
one's  employment.  "  Blessed  impulses  to  duty,  and  powerful  avocations  from  sin." 
South.  This  use,  however,  of  the^word,  though  its  etymological  and  primary  mean- 
ing, is  now  nearly  if  not  quite  obsolete,  and  the  secondary  meaning,  namely,  "  the 
business  which  calls  aside,"  is  pretty  well  established.  Even  in  this  sense,  however, 
it  means  the  smaller  affairs  of  life,  or  those  occasional  calls  which  summon  a  man  to 
leave  for  a  time  his  ordinary  business,  or  "vocation." 

Contemptible.  —  It  is  not  uncommon  to  hear  persons  say,  "I  have  &  contemptible 
opinion  of  the  man,"  by  which  they  mean,  not  that  their  opinion  is  contemptible, 
but  that  the  man  is.  The  familiar  anecdote  of  Doctor  Porson  furnishes  a  good  illus- 
tration both  of  the  incorrect  and  of  the  correct  use  of  this  word.  Some  one  having 
said  to  the  Doctor,  "  My  opinion  of  you  is  most  contemptible,"  Porson  replied,  "  I 
never  knew  an  opinion  of  yours  that  was  not  contemptible." 

Jietpeclivfly.  —  A  large  part  of  the  letters  which  pass  through  the  Post  Office  end 
with  "Yours,  Respectively.'''' 

Omstrue  and  Construct. — Occasionally  construe  and  construct  are  confounded  by 
writers  of  considerable  standing.  We  construct  a  sentence  when  we  form  or  make  one. 
We  construe  it  when  we  explain  its  construction.  A  boy  construes  a  Latin  sentence 
when  ho  tmnslates  it  into  English  and  explains  its  grammatical  structure.  He  con- 
structs a  Latin  sentence  when  he  translates  an  English  one  into  correct  Latin.  Writers 
construct;  rewlers  construe. 

Replace.  — Somo  ambiguity  has  arisen  of  late  in  regard  to  the  proper  use  of  the  word 
replace.  According  to  its  etymology,  and,  until  lately,  according  to  its  uniform  use, 
"replace"  meant  to  put  one  back  into  a  place  which  he  formerly  occupied.  It  now 
currently  means  to  put  into  a  place  vacated  by  some  else.  "After  the  expiration  of 
his  first  term,  Qcnoral  Washington  was  replaced  in  the  Presidential  chair."    This 


DICTION  —  PROPRIETY.  77 

Meant  in  that  day  that  Washington  filled  the  office  a  second  time.  "  In  the  summer 
of  1867,  Stanton  was  replaced  in  the  War  Office  by  Grant."  This  now  means  that  Grant 
was  put  into  the  place  which  Stanton  had  vacated.  This  latter  use  of  the  word  is  derived 
from  a  French  expression,  signifying  "  to  take  the  place  of,"  and  has  perhaps  already 
acquired  so  much  authority  in  its  favor  as  to  be  considered  good  English. 

Got. — There  is  perhaps  no  one  word  so  variously  misused  as  "got."  It  would  seem 
almost  as  if  there  were  no  event  in  history,  no  fact  in  science,  which  might  not  be  ex- 
pressed by  this  convenient  drudge.  I  clip  the  following  from  an  English  publication : 
"  I  got  on  horseback  within  ten  minutes  after  I  got  your  letter.  When  I  got  to  Canter- 
bury, I  got  a  chaise  for  town  ;  but  I  got  wet  through  before  I  got  to  Canterbury  ;  and  I 
have  got  such  a  cold  as  I  shall  not  be  able  to  get  rid  of  in  a  hurry.  I  got  to  the  Treasury 
about  noon,  but  first  of  all  I  got  shaved  and  dressed.  I  soon  got  into  the  secret  of 
getting  a  memorial  before  the  Board,  but  I  could  not  get  an  answer  then ;  however,  I 
got  intelligence  from  the  messenger  that  I  should  most  likely  get  an  answer  the  next 
morning.  As  soon  ns  I  got  back  to  my  inn,  I  got  my  supper,  and  got  to  bed.  It  was 
not  long  before  I  got  to  sleep.  When  I  got  up  in  the  morning,  I  got  my  breakfast,  and 
then  got  myself  dressed,  that  I  might  get  out  in  time  to  get  an  answer  to  my  memorial. 
As  soon  as  I  got  it  I  got  into  the  chaise,  and  got  to  Canterbury  by  three,  and  about 
tea-time  I  got  home.    I  have  got  nothing  more  to  say,  and  so  adieu."      ^ 

Exercises  on  Propriety  of  Diction. 

Note.  Each  of  the  sentences  given  below  contains  some  word  which,  though  in  itself 
good  English,  is  used  improperly  here.  The  student  is  expected  to  point  out  the  word 
thus  used,  show  wherein  the  impropriety  consists,  and  make  the  necessary  correction. 

I  must  repeat  here  the  admonition  to  teachers  about  the  daily  inspection  of  the 
text-books.  No  lesson  should  be  commenced  until  those  pages  of  the  book  containing 
the  lessons  for  the  day  have  passed  the  inspection  of  the  teacher.  A  few  pencil-marks 
on  the  pages  containing  the  examples  for  practice  make  the  book  as  useless  for  the 
purpose  of  instruction  as  if  the  page  were  actually  torn  out  of  the  book. 

1.  Directly  I  found  the  house  inhabited,  I  began  to  be  sorry  that 
it  was  not  as  empty  as  the  library  and  the  street. 

2.  I  want  a  position  as  a  teacher,  and  I  will  be  greatly  obliged  to 
you  for  a  recommend. 

3.  The  girl  aggravates  me  very  much  by  her  obstinacy  and  her 
impudence. 

4.  The  President  intends  to  evacuate  the  very  day  that  Congress 
adjourns. 

5.  Hearing  the  whistle  of  the  engine  about  a.  mile  off,  I  ran  pgU- 
mell  down  the  street,  hoping  to  reach  the  statiou.  in  time. 

6.  Mr.  Peabody  was  a  friend  and  patron  of  ahaost  every  humani- 
tarian scheme. 

7.  He  was  unwilling  to  demean  himself  by  making  a  public  apology. 

8.  His  argument  was  predicated  on  the  belief  that  what  the  wit- 
ness said  was  true. 

9.  Neither  of  the  twelve  jurors  could  be  induced  to  believe  the  man 
guilty,  ^^-'•i  -i-^-i.^ 

6 


78  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

10.  The  epithets,  coward,  thief,  villain,  liar,  were  heaped  upon 
him  without  stint. 

11.  The  alternatives  set  before  him  were  to  abjure  his  faith,  to 
Bubmit  to  the  torture,  or  to  go  into  perpetual  exile. 

12.  In  travelling  by  railroad,  you  have  to  settle  for  your  ticket 
in  advance.  ' 

13.  Do  not  forget  to  send  me  an  invite  to  your  wedding. 

14.  His  style  of  living  corresponded  with  his  means. 

15.  While  spending  the  summer  in  Utah  he  enjoyed  exceptionable 
opportunities  for  observing  the  peculiarities  of  the  Mormon  religion. 

16.  Here  is  a  ticket  for  the  afternoon  matinee. 

17.  I  promise  you,  I  think  he  will  come  out  all  right. 

18.  She  entered  heartily  into  the  stern  amenities  of  convent  life. 

19.  This  idea  (of  a  vessel  without  a  bowsprit)  was  a  copy  of  the 
model  inaugurated  by  the  founder  of  the  Collins  line. 

20.  Experience  has  proved  that  England  lies  formidably  open  to 
fi^ttack. 

21.  The  troops,  though  fighting  brUvely,  were  terribly  decimated, 
nearly  half  of  them  having  fallen. 

22.  The  cars  have  as  good  a  right  to  be  stopped  as  the  carriage  has. 

23.  Just  now  he  is  stopping  at  the  Metropolitan. 

24.  No  doubt  the  men  have  some  good  points  about  them,  but  we 
are  told  not  to  fellowship  with  unbelievers. 

25.  The  letter  was  very  plainly  directed,  and  I  think  it  will  be  apt 
to  come. 

26.  Many  years  have  now  transpired  since  the  Mexican  war. 

27.  You  will  have  to  run  faster  than  that,  if  you  wish  to  catch  the 
oar. 

28.  That  rents  in  New  York  are  most  unreasonably  high  just  now 
is  a  palpable  truism. 

29.  I  wish  you  would  bring  me  a  couple  of  books  on  chemistry. 
80.  Miss  Goldsmith  commenced  student  in  Vassar  College  in  her 

seventeenth  year. 
(31.  There  is  not  much  fruit  in  the  section  of  the  State  hereabouts. 

32.  I  have  every  confidence  that  the  ship  will  arrive  in  time. 

83.  Every  human  being  has  this  in  common. 

34.  At  the  noise  of  fire-engines,  some  rude  fellows  rushed  out  into 
the  streets,  but  the  balance  of  the  congregation  kept  their  seats. 

85.  I  expect  you  had  a  hard  time  of  it  yesterday. 

86.  I  consider  the  picture  Weber's  best. 

87.  The  platform  adopted  by  the  party  was  calculated  to  do  the 
candidate  great  harm. 


DICTION  —  PEECISION.  79 

88.  This  application  of  reason,  so  continually,  consistently,  and 
generally  exercised,  predicates  a  great  national  future. 

39.  He  completes  the  book  with  "  Hail  Columbia,  Happy  Land !  " 

40.  Selfish  men  sometimes  succeed  in  deceiving  the  world,  and  in 
being  set  aside  as  generous. 

III.  PRECISION. 

Precision  is  the  third  quality  at  which  a  writer  or  a 
speaker  should  aim  in  the  selection  of  his  words. 

Meaning  of  Precision. —  The  etymology  of  this  term  [praecidere,  to 
cut  ofi")  shows  how  it  is  used.  We  should,  if  possible,  find  words 
which  cut  oflf  all  extraneous  ideas, —  which  express  only  just  what 
is  meant,  and  no  more. 

Eixamples  of  "Words  not  used  Precisely.  — If  to  express  the  idea  of 
pouring  water  from  a  pot,  we  speak  of  '■'■turning  it  out,"  the  latter  word,  in  addition 
to  the  idea  of  pouring,  expresses  also  the  act  of  turning  the  pot,  in  order  to  the  pour- 
ing.    Turning,  therefore,  in  this  phrase,  is  not  used  precisely. 

"Notwithstanding  the  entreaties  of  the  prisoner,  the  judge  was  inflexible.''''  A  man 
is  inflexible  who  is  incapable  of  being  turned  aside  by  any  motive,  —  by  bribery,  in- 
timidation, entreaty,  force,  &c.  As  a  specific  motive  is  here  mentioned,  that  of  en- 
treaty, a  more  precise  writer  would  have  used  the  word  inexorable,  which  means 
specifically  one  who  cannot  be  moved  by  entreaty. 

^'■Attitude  of  devotion"  is  a  more  precise  expression  than  ^^ posture  of  devotion," 
because  "posture"  signifies  any  position  of  the  body,  while  "attitude"  refers  to  such 
a  position  of  the  body  as  is  adapted  to  express  some  internal  feeling  or  purpose. 

The  Study  of  Synonyms.  —  One  who  wishes  to  use  words  with  pre- 
cision should  study  carefully  the  subject  of  Synonyms.  Few  words 
in  any  language  are  exactly  synonymous.  Many,  which  at  first 
sight  appear  to  be  so,  are  found  on  examination  to  have  shades  of 
difference,  and  it  is  by  noticing  these  slight  differences  of  meaning 
that  we  learn  to  use  words  with  precision. 

Character  of  the  English  Language  in  regard  to  Synonyms.  —  The 
English,  more  than  almost  any  other  language,  has  words  that  are 
truly  synonymous,  and  this  on  account  of  its  composite  character. 
For  the  same  idea  we  have,  in  thousands  of  instances,  one  word 
from  the  Saxon,  another  from  the  Latin,  and  sometimes  still  a  third 
from  the  Greek;  as,  daily  and  diurnal,  iveekly  and  hebdomadal,  hap- 
piness and  felicity,  everlastiny  and  sempiternal,  fatherly  and  paternaly 
nightly  and  nocturnal,  powerful  and  potential. 

A  Caution. — Even  here,  however,  care  must  be  taken.  Optician,  from  the  Greek, 
means  a  maker  of  instruments  for  the  eye ;  Oculist,  from  the  Latin,  means  one  who 
performs  operations  upon  the  eye  itself;  and  Eye-doctor,  from  the  mother-tongue, 


80  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETOEIC. 

means  a  quack  who  has  some  nostrum  for  curing  sore  eyes.  Motherly  may  perhapi 
be  the  exact  logical  equivalent  for  maternal,  but  it  is  worth  a  good  deal  more  to  a 
loving  heart  when  away  from  the  endearments  of  childhood  and  home. 

Books  on  the  Subject. — Crabbe's  Dictionary  of  Synonyms  is  a  most 
valuable  work  for  reference  on  this  subject.  Another  excellent 
work  is  Roget's  Thesaurus  of  English  Words.  The  matter  is  also 
carefully  treated  in  the  latest  edition  of  Webster's  Quarto  Dictionary, 
where  under  many  of  the  leading  words  the  various  other  words 
which  are  nearly  synonymous  are  given,  and  the.  differences  ex- 
plained. The  subject  is  also  discussed  briefly,  but  in  a  judicious 
and  satisfactory  manner,  by  Blair  in  his  Lectures  on  Rhetoric.  I 
give  a  few  examples,  taken  chiefly  from  these  sources,  though 
with  some  alterations  to  suit  the  purposes  of  the  present  work.^J^ 

A  difficulty,  an  obstacle. — A  diflBculty  embarrasses,  an  obstacle  stops  us.  We  re- 
move the  one,  we  surmount  the  other.  Generally,  the  first  expresses  something  aris- 
ing from  the  nature  and  circumstances  of  the  affair;  the  second  something  arising 
from  a  foreign  cause.  Philip  found  difficulty  in  managing  the  Athenians  from  the 
nature  of  their  dispositions ;  but  the  eloquence  of  Demosthenes  was  the  greatest 
obstacle  to  his  designs. 

Opportunity,  occasion.  —  An  occasion  is  that  which  falls  in  our  way,  or  presents 
itself  in  the  course  of  events ;  an  opportunity  is  a  convenience  or  fitness  of  time  and 
place  for  the  doing  of  a  thing.  Hence  opportunities  often  spring  out  of  occasions. 
We  may  have  occasion  to  meet  a  person  frequently  without  getting  an  opportunity  to 
converse  with  him  on  a  particular  subject  about  which  we  are  anxious.  We  act  as 
the  occasion  may  require ;  we  embrace  an  opportunity. 

Malevolence,  malice,  malignity. — There  is  the  same  difference  between  malevolence 
and  tnalice  as  between  wishes  and  intentions.  A  malevolent  man  wishes  ill  to  others, 
a.  malicious  man  is  bent  on  doing  ill  to  them.  Malignity  goea  even  further;  it  not 
only  is  bent  on  doing  evil,  but  loves  it  for  its  own  sake.  One  who  is  malignant  must 
be  both  malevolent  and  malicious  ;  but  a  man  may  be  malicious  without  being  malig- 
nant. 

Weight,  heaviness. —  Weight  is  indefinite;  whatever  may  be  weighed  has  weight, 
whether  large  or  small.  Heaviness  is  the  property  of  bodies  having  an  unusual  degree 
of  weight.  Weight  lies  absolutely  in  the  thing ;  heaviness  refers  to  an  opinion  which 
Bome  one  may  have  in  regard  to  that  thing  as  being  the  opposite  of  light.  We  esti- 
mate the  weight  of  things  by  a  certain  fixed  measure ;  we  estimate  the  heaviness  of 
things  by  our  feelings. 

Pale,  pallid,  wan, — The  absence  of  color  in  any  degree,  where  color  is  a  usual  qual- 
ity, constitutes  pa/cnc.?s ;  pallidness  is  an  excess  of  paleness,  and  wanness  is  an  unu- 
sual degree  of  pallidness.  Fear,  or  any  sudden  emotion,  may  produce  paleness ;  pro- 
tracted sickness,  hunger,  and  fatigue  bring  on  pallidness  ;  and  when  these  calamities 
are  greatly  heightened  and  aggravated,  they  produce  wanness.  Pale  is  applicable  to 
a  great  variety  of  objects.as,  a  paZe  face,  a  pale  sky,  a  pale  green,  a  pal^.  rose,  and  it  may 
be  either  natural  or  acquired,  desirable  or  undesirable.  Pallid  is  applicable  to  the 
human  face  only,  and  never  to  that  except  as  implying  disease  or  something  out  of 
the  course  of  nature.  Wan  is  applicable  to  a  face  having  such  a  degree  of  pallor  OM 
to  be  ghastly  and  monstrous. 


DICTION — PRECISION.  81 

Avow,  acknowledge,  confess. — Each  of  these  words  imports  the  afBrmation  of  a  fact, 
but  in  very  different  circumstances.  To  avow  a  thing,  supposes  a  person  to  glory  in 
it ;  to  acknowledge,  supposes  a  small  degree  of  faultiness,  which  the  acknowledgment 
compensates ;  to  confess,  supposes  a  higher  degree  of  crime.  An  independent  legisla- 
tor avows  his  opposition  to  some  measure  of  the  executive,  and  is  applauded ;  a  gen- 
tleman acJcnowUdges  his  mistake,  and  is  forgiven ;  a  prisoner  confesses  the  crime  with 
which  he  is  charged,  and  is  punished. 

Lucid,  luminous.  —  A  thing  is  lucid,  when  it  is  pervaded  with  light;  it  is  luminous, 
when  it  sends  forth  light  to  other  bodies.  A  stream  may  be  lucid;  the  stars  are 
luminous.  An  argument  is  lucid,  when  the  reasoning  is  perfectly  clear  to  the  appre- 
hension; it  is  luminous,  when  the  author  not  only  makes  his  meaning  clear,  but 
pours  a  flood  of  light  upon  the  subject. 

Onlr/,  alone.— On\y  imports  that  there  is  no  other  of  the  same  kind ;  alone  imports 
being  accompanied  by  no  other.  An  only  child  is  one  who  has  neither  brother  nor 
sister ;  a  child  alone  is  one  who  is  left  by  itself.  "  Virtue  only  makes  us  happy  " 
means  that  nothing  else  can  do  it.  "  Virtue  alone  makes  us  happy  "  means  that  vir- 
tue by  itself,  and  unaccompanied  with  other  advantages,  is  sufficient  to  do  it.      ; 

Kill,  murder,  assas.<iinate. — To  kill  means  simply  to  deprive  of  life.  A*man  may 
kill  another  by  accident,  or  in  self-defence,  without  the  imputation  of  guilt.  To  mur- 
der is  to  kill  with  malicious  forethought  and  intention.  To  assassinate  is  to  murder 
suddenly  and  by  stealth.  The  sheriff  may  kill  without  murdering ;  the  duellist  mur- 
ders, but  does  not  assassinate ;  the  assassin  both  kills  and  murders  in  the  meanest  and 
most  ignoble  manner. 

Discover,  invent.  —  We  discover  what  existed  before,  but  was  unknown ;  we  invent 
what  is  new.  Columbus  discovered  America,  "Whitney  invented  the  cotton-gin. 
Henry  discovered  the  laws  of  electric  induction,  Morse  invented  the  telegraph. 

Kingly,  regal,  royal. —  Kingly,  which  is  Anglo-Saxon,  refers  especially  to  the  char- 
acter of  a  king ;  regal,  which  is  Latin,  refers  more  to  the  office.  The  former  is  chiefly 
used  of  dispositions,  feelings,  purposes,  and  the  like ;  the  latter  is  applied  more  to 
external  state.  We  speak  of  kingly  deeds,  kingly  sentiments,  "  a  kingly  heart  for 
enterprises  "  (Sidney),  but  of  the  regal  title,  regal  pomp.  Royal,  which  comes  from 
regal  through  the  French,  has  a  meaning  more  akin  to  kiogly. 

WhoU,  entire,  total,  complete. —  Whole  refers  to  a  thing  as  made  up  of  parts  none  of 
which  are  wanting ;  as  a  whole  book,  that  is,  a  book  with  no  leaves  out.  Total  hall 
reference  to  all  as  taken  together  and  forming  a  single  unit  or  totality ;  as,  the  total 
amount,  the  sum  total.  Entire  has  no  reference  to  parts  at  all,  but  considers  a  thing 
as  being  integer,  that  is,  unbroken  or  continuous  ;  as,  the  entire  summer.  Complete 
refers  to  preceding  progress  ending  in  the  perfect  filling  out  of  some  plan  or  purpose  ; 
as,  a  complete  victory. 

Contagion,  infection.  —  Both  words  imply  the  communication  of  something  bad. 
In  the  case  of  contagion,  this  is  done  by  outward  contact  or  touch ;  in  the  case  of 
infection,  by  invisible  influences  working  inwardly.  The  plague  and  small-pox  are 
contagious,  various  forms  of  fever  are  infectious.  Bad  manners  are  contagious ;  bad 
principles,  infectious. 

Explicit,  express.  —  Both  words  convey  the  idea  of  clearness  in  a  statement,  but  the 
latter  is  the  stronger  word  of  the  two.  Explicit  denotes  something  set  forth  so 
plainly  that  it  cannot  well  be  misunderstood.  Express  adds  a  certain  degree  of  force 
to  this  clearness.  An  express  promise  is  not  only  one  in  clear,  unambiguous  words, 
but  one  standing  out  in  bold  relief,  with  a  binding  hold  on  the  conscience.  We  speak 
of  an  explicit  statement,  but  of  an  express  command. 
8 


82  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Excitt,  incite.  —  To  excite  in  to  awaken  or  arouse  feelings  that  were  dormant  or  calm. 
To  incite  is  to  urge  forward  into  twjts  correspondent  to  the  feelings  which  have  been 
awakened. 

With,  by.  —  Both  words  imply  a  connection  between  some  instrument  or  means,  and 
the  8igent  by  whom  it  is  used  ;  but  vnth  signifies  a  more  close  and  immediate  connec- 
tion, by  a  more  remote  one.  An  ancient  king  of  Scotland  interrogated  his  nobles  as 
to  the  tenure  by  which  they  held  their  lands.  The  chiefs,  starting  up,  drew  their 
swords,  saying,  "By  these  [the  remote  means]  we  acquired  our  lands,  and  with  these 
[the  immediate  instrument]  we  will  defend  them."  We  kill  a  man  with  a  sword ;  he 
dies  by  violence.  ' 

Sufficient,  enough.  —  Sufficient  refers  to  actual  wants ;  enough,  to  the  desires,  to  what 
we  think  we  want.  A  man  has  suflScient,  when  his  wants  are  supplied  ;'«he  has 
enough,  when  his  desires  are  satisfied.  A  greedy  man  never  has  enough,  though  he 
may  have  a  sufliciency.  Another  distinction  is  that  enough  is  used  of  objects  of  desire 
only,  while  sufficieiit  may  be  spoken  of  anything  which  serves  a  purpose.  "  Children 
and  animals  seldom  have  enough  food."  "  We  should  allow  sufficient  time  for  what- 
ever is  to  be  done,  if  we  wish  it  to  be  done  well." 

Example,  instance.  —  An  instonce  denotes  the  single  case  then  standing  before  us, 
and  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  there  are  other  cases  like  it.  An  example,  on  the 
contrary,  is,  by  its  very  terms,  one  of  a  class  of  like  things.  It  is  a  sample  of  a  class. 
An  example  presupposes  and  implies  a  rule,  an  established  course  or  oi-der  of  things ; 
an  instance  simply  points  out  what  is  true  in  that  particular  case,  but  may  not  neces- 
sarily be  true  in  any  other  case.  "An  instance  or  two  of  severity  in  the  life  of  a  man 
who  gave  every  day  examples  of  his  kindness  of  heart,  ought  not  to  change  our 
opinion  of  his  character  as  a  whole." 

[To  THE  Teacher.  By  frequent  practice  in  tracing  the  differences  between  words 
aeomingly  alike,  sucli  as  those  which  have  now  been  adduced,  a  habit  will  be  formed 
of  noticing  more  particularly  the  exact  meaning  of  the  words  we  meet  with,  and  thus 
our  own  diction  will  almost  unconsciously  acquire  greater  precision.  To  aid  in  the 
formation  of  this  important  liabit,  additional  examples  are  given  below  of  words  par- 
tially synonymous,  but  with  varying  shades  of  meaning.  Each  of  these  sets  of  words 
is  to  be  explained  and  illustrated  by  the  student  in  the  same  manner  as  those  already 
given.] 

Exercises   in   Precision. 

1.  Abandon,  desert,  forsake ;  abettor,  accessory,  accomplice  ; 
abase,  debase,  degrade ;  ability,  capacity ;  abash,  confuse,  con- 
found. 

2.  Abdicate,  resign ;  abolish,  repeal,  abrogate,  revoke,  annul,  nul- 
lify ;  abridgment,  compendium,  epitome,  abstract,  synopsis ;  absent, 
abstracted;  absolve,  exonerate,  acquit. 

3.  Abuse,  invective ;  accomplish,  effect,  execute,  achieve,  per- 
form;  account,  narrative,  narration,  recital;  accuse,  charge,  im- 
peach, arraign ;  acknowledge,  recognize. 

4.  Acquaintance,  familiarity,  intimacy ;  add,  join,  annex,  unite, 
coalesce;  adjacent,  adjoining,  contiguous;  adjourn,  prorogue;  admo- 
nition, reprehension,  reproof. 

6.  Adorn,  ornament,  decorate,  embellish ;  adulation,  flattery, 
compliment;  adversary,  enemy,  opponent,  antagonist;  afflicbion, 
sorrow,  grief,  distress;  aflFront,  insult,  outrage. 


EXERCISES    IN    PRECISION.  83 

6.  Agony,   anguish,  pang  ;    alarm,  fright,  terror,   consternation ; 
alleviate,  mitigate,   assuage,  allay;  also,  likewise,   too;  altercation,     * 
dispute,  wrangle. 

7.  Amend,  emend,  correct,  reform,  rectify;  amidst,  among  ;  ample, 
abundant,  copious,  plenteous ;  amuse,  divert,  entertain ;  ancient, 
antiquated,  antique,  obsolete,  old. 

8.  Anger,  fury,  indignation,  ire,  resentment,  rage,  wrath ;  ani- 
mosity, enmity  ;  announce,  proclaim,  promulgate,  publish  ;  antici- 

'     pate,  expect ;  appreciate,  estimate,  esteem. 

\  9.  Arduous,  difficult,  hard ;  argue,  debate,  dispute ;  artificer, 
artisan,  artist ;  ascribe,  attribute,  impute ;  asperse,  calumniate, 
defame,  slander. 

^0.  Assert,  maintain,  indicate  ;  at  last,  at  length  ;  atrocious,  flagi- 
tious, flagrant ;  attack,  assail,  assault,  invade  ;  attempt,  endeavor, 
ofi^ort,  exertion,  trial. 

11.  Attend,  hearken,  listen  ;  authentic,  genuine;  avaricious,  covet- 
ous, miserly,  niggardly,  parsimonious,  penurious ;  avenge,  revenge ; 
antipathy,  aversion,  disgust,  reluctance,  repugnance. 

12.  Avoid,  shun  ;  dread,  reverence,  veneration  ;  awkward,  clumsy, 
uncouth ;   adage,  aphorism,   axiom,  maxim ;  baffle,  defeat,  frustrate.  f\ 

13.  Banish,  exile,  expel ;  bashfulness,  diffidence,  modesty,  shy-  CV 
ness ;  battle,  combat,  engagement,  fight ;  be,  exist ;   beast,  brute. 

14.  As,  because,  for,  inasmuch  as,  since  ;  become,  grow ;  ask,  beg, 
request ;  benevolent,  beneficent ;  bent,  bias,  inclination,  preposses- 
sion. ^ 

15.  Bequeath,  devise  ;  beseech,  entreat,  implore,  solicit,  suppli- 
cate ;    among,   between ;    blameless,   faultless,    spotless,    stainless ;  r 
blaze,  flame.                                                                                                                ^ 

16.  Burden,  load  ;  calculate,  compute,  count,  reckon ;  calamity,  "" 
disaster, '  mischance,  misfortune,  mishap  ;  call,  convoke,  summon  ;  ! 
can  but,  can  not  but.                                                                                                  /■ 

17.  Captious,  cavilling,  fretful,  petulant ;  anxiety,  care,  concern, 
solicitude ;  cautious,  circumspect,  wary ;  cessation,  intermission, 
pause,  rest,  stop ;  chasten,  chastise,  punish.  ^ 

18.  Chief,  chieftain,  commander,  leader  ;  choose,  elect,  prefer ; 
coerce,  compel ;  comfort,  console,  solace ;  commit,  consign,  intrust. 

19.  Conceal,  disguise,  dissemble,  hide,  secrete;  acknowledge, 
avow,  confess ;  confute,  refute ;  congratulate,  felicitate ;  conquer, 
overcome,  subdue,  subjugate,  vanquish. 

20.  Consist  in,  consist  of;  constant,  continual,  perpetual;  con- 
template, intend,  meditate  ;  contemptible,  despicable,  pitiful,  paltry ; 
convince,  persuade. 


84  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC, 


Abstract  of  Campbell's  Essay  on  Use  as  the  Law  of 
Language. 

Every  tongue  whatever  is  founded  in  use  or  custom.  Language  is  purely  a  species 
of  fashion,  in  vrhich,  by  the  general  but  tacit  consent  of  the  people  of  a  particular 
state  or  country,  certain  sounds  come  to  be  appropriated  to  certain  things,  and  certain 
ways  of  inflecting  and  combining  those  sounds  come  to  be  established,  as  denoting  the 
relations  which  subsist  among  the  things  signified. 

It  is  not  the  business  of  grammar,  as  some  critics  seem  preposterously  to  imagijio,  to 
give  law  to  the  fashions  which  regulate  our  speech.  On  the  contrary,  from  its  con- 
formity to  these,  and  from  that  alone,  grammar  derives  all  its  authority  and  value. 
For,  what  is  the  grammar  of  any  language  ?  It  is  no  other  than  a  collection  of  general 
observations  methodically  digested,  and  comprising  all  the  modes  previously  and  inde- 
pendently established,  by  which  the  significations,  derivations,  and  combinations  of 
words  in  that  language  are  ascertained.  It  is  of  no  consequence  here  to  what  causes 
originally  these  modes  or  fashions  owe  their  existence,  to  imitation,  to  reflection,  to 
affectation,  or  to  caprice ;  they  no  sooner  obtain,  and  become  general,  than  they  are 
laws  of  the  language,  and  the  grammarian's  only  business  is  to  note,  collect,  and 
methodize  them.  Nor  does  this  truth  concern  only  those  more  comprehensive  anal- 
ogies or  rules,  which  aff'ect  whole  classes  of  words ;  such  as  nouns,  verbs,  and  the 
other  parts  of  speech ;  but  it  concerns  every  individual  word,  in  the  inflecting  or  com- 
bining of  which,  a  particular  mode  has  prevailed.  Every  single  anomaly,  therefore, 
though  departing  from  the  rule  assigned  to  the  other  words  of  the  same  class,  and  on 
that  account  called  an  exception,  stands  on  the  same  basis,  on  which  the  rules  of  the 
tongue  are  founded,  custom  having  prescribed  for  it  a  separate  rule.  Thus,  in  the 
two  verbs  call  and  shall,  the  second  person  singular  of  the  former  is  calUst,  agreeably 
to  the  general  rule ;  the  second  person  singular  of  the  latter  is  shall,  agreeably  to  a 
particular  rule  affecting  that  verb.  To  say  shallest  for  shall,  would  be  as  much  a  bar- 
barism, though  according  to  the  general  rule,  as  to  say  call  for  callest,  which  is  accord- 
ing to  no  rule. 

Only  let  us  rest  in  these  as  fixed  principles,  that  Use,  or  the  custom  of  speaking,  is  the 
sole  original  standard  of  conversation,  and  the  custom  of  writing  is  the  sole  standard 
of  style;  that  to  the  tribunal  of  use,  as  to  the  supreme  authority,  and  consequently,  in 
every  grammatical  or  verbal  controversy,  the  last  resort,  we  are  entitled  to  appeal 
from  the  laws  and  the  decisions  of  grammarians  and  lexicographers;  and  that  this  order 
of  subordination  ought  never,  on  any  account,  to  be  reversed. 

But  if  use  be  here  a  matter  of  such  consequence,  it  will  be  necessary,  before  advan- 
cing any  fartlier,  to  ascertain  precisely  what  it  is.  We  shall  otherwise  be  in  danger, 
though  we  agree  about  the  name,  of  differing  widely  in  the  notion  that  we  assign  to  it. 

1.  Reputable  Use.  —  In  what  extent  then  must  the  word  be  understood  ?  It  is  some- 
times called  general  use ;  yet  is  it  not  manifest  that  the  generality  of  people  speak  and 
write  very  badly  ?  Nay,  is  not  this  a  truth  that  will  be  even  generally  acknowledged  ? 
It  will  be  so ;  and  this  very  acknowledgment  shows  that  many  terms  and  idi(tns  may 
bo  ooraraon,  which,  nevertheless,  have  not  the  general  sanction,  no,  nor  even  the 
suffrage  of  those  that  use  them.  The  use  here  spoken  of,  implies  not  only  currency, 
but  vogue..    It  is  properly  reputable  custom. 

This  leads  to  a  distinction  between  good  use  and  bad  use  in  langxiage,  the  former  of 
which  will  bo  found  to  have  the  approbation  of  those  who  have  not  themselves  attained 
It.  Tlie  far  greater  part  of  mankind  are,  by  reason  of  poverty  and  other  circumstances, 
deprived  of  the  advantages  of  education,  and  condemned  to  toil  almost  incessantly  in 
some  narrow  occupation.  They  have  neither  the  leisure  nor  the  means  of  attaining 
any  knowledge,  except  what  lies  within  the  contracted  circle  of  their  several  occupa- 


DicTiox — Campbell's  essay.  85 

tions.  As  the  ideas  which  occupy  their  minds  are  few,  the  portion  of  the  languag.e 
known  to  them  must  be  very  scanty. 

But  it  may  be  said,  and  said  with  truth,  that  in  such  subjects  as  are  within  their 
reach,  many  words  and  idioms  prevail  among  uneducated  pec^le,  which,  notwitli- 
Btanding  a  use  pretty  uniform  and  extensive,  are  considered  as  corrupt,  and  like  coun- 
terfeit money,  though  common,  not  valued.  This  is  the  case  particularly  with  those 
terms  and  phrases  which  critics  have  styled  vulgarisms.  Their  use  is  not  reputable. 
On  the  contrary,  wo  always  associate  with  it  such  notions  of  meanness,  as  suit  the 
class  of  men  amongst  whom  chiefly  the  use  is  found. 

The  currency  of  such  words,  therefore,  is  without  authority  or  weight.  The  prattle 
of  children  has  a  currency,  but,  however  universal  their  manner  of  corrupting  words 
may  be  among  themselves,  it  can  never  establish  what  is  accounted  use  in  language. 
Now,  what  children  are  to  men,  that  precisely  the  ignorant  are  to  the  knowing. 

From  the  practice  of  those  who  are  conversant  in  any  art,  elegant  or  mechanical, 
we  always  take  the  sense  ot  tue  terms  and  phrases  belonging  to  that  art.  In  like 
manner,  from  the  practice  of  those  who  have  had  a  liberal  education,  and  are  therefore 
presumed  to  be  best  acquainted  with  men  and  things,  we  judge  of  the  general  use  in 
language. 

But  in  what  concerns  the  words  themselves,  their  construction  and  application,  it  is 
of  importance  to  have  some  certain,  steady,  and  well-known  standard  to  recur  to,  a 
standard  which  every  one  has  the  opportunity  to  canvass  and  examine.  And  this  can 
be  no  other  thMl  authors  of  reputation.  Accordingly  we  find  that  these  are,  by 
universal  consent,  in  actual  possession  of  this  authority ;  as  to  this  tribunal,  when 
any  doubt  arises,  the  appeal  is  always  made. 

In  the  English  tongue  there  is  a  plentiful  supply  of  noted  writings  in  all  the  various 
kinds  of  composition,  prose  and  verse,  serious  and  ludicrous,  grave  and  familiar. 
Agreeably  then  to  this  first  qualification  of  the  term,  we  must  understand  to  be  com- 
prehended under  general  use,  whatever  modes  of  speech  are  authorized  as  good  by  the 
writings  of  a  great  number,  if  not  the  majority,  of  celebrated  authors. 

2.  National  Use.  —  Another  qualification  of  the  term  t«e  which  deserves  our  atten- 
tion, is  that  it  must  be  national. 

In  every  locality  there  are  peculiarities  of  dialect,  which  aflFect  not  only  the  pro- 
nunciation and  the  accent,  but  even  the  inflection  and  the  combination  of  words, 
whereby  their  idiom  is  distinguished  both  from  that  of  the  nation,  and  from  that  of 
every  other  locality.  The  narrowness  of  the  circle  to  which  the  currency  of  the 
words  and  phrases  of  such  dialects  is  confined,  sufficiently  discriminates  them  from 
that  which  is  properly  styled  the  language,  and  which  commands  a  circulation  incom- 
parably wider. 

What  has  been  said  of  local  dialects,  may,  with  very  little  variation,  be  applied  to 
professional  dialects,  or  the  cant  which  is  sometimes  observed  to  prevail  among  those 
of  the  same  profession  or  way  of  life.  The  currency  of  the  latter  cannot  be  so  ex- 
actly circumscribed  as  that  of  the  former,  whose  distinction  is  purely  local ;  but  their 
use  is  not  on  that  account  either  more  extensive  or  more  reputable.  Let  the  following 
serve  as  instances  of  this  kind:  Advice,  in  the  commercial  idiom,  means  information 
or  intelligence ;  nervous,  in  medical  language,  denotes  having  weak  nerves.  Such  a 
use  surely  would  not  be  sufficient  to  establish  the  meanings  here  given  to  be  the 
ordinary  and  regular  meanings  of  these  words. 

No  use  of  a  word  can  be  considered  as  national  unless  it  is  found  among  good  writers 
of  all  classes,  as  well  as  in  all  parts  of  England  and  America  in  which  the  English 
language  is  spoken. 

3.  Present  Use.  —  But  there  will  naturally  arise  here  another  question,  Is  not  use, 
even  good  and  national  use,  in  the  same  country,  diff"erent  in  different  periods?    And 


86  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

if  80,  to  the  usage  of  what  period  shall  we  attach  ourselves,  as  the  proper  rule  ?  If 
you  say  the  present,  as  it  may  reasonably  be  expected  that  you  will,  the  difficulty  is 
not  entirely  removed.  In  what  extent  of  signification  must  we  understand  the  word 
presents  How  far  may  we  safely  range  in  quest  of  authorities?  or,  at  what  distance 
backwards  from  this  moment  are  authors  still  to  be  accounted  as  possessing  a  legisla- 
tive voice  in  language?  To  this  it  is  difficult  to  give  an  answer  with  all  the  precision 
that  might  be  desired.  Yet  it  is  certain,  that  when  we  are  in  search  of  precedents  for 
•ny  word  or  idiom,  there  are  certain  bounds  beyond  which  we  cannot  go  with  safety. 

It  is  safest  for  an  author  to  consider  those  words  and  idioms  as  obsolete,  which 
have  been  disused  by  all  good  authors,  for  a  longer  period  than  the  ordinary  age  of 
man  extends  to.  It  is  not  by  ancient,  but  by  present  use,  that  our  diction  must  be 
regulated.  And  that  use  can  never  be  denominated  present,  which  has  been  laid 
aside  time  immemorial,  or,  which  amounts  to  the  same  thing,  falls  not  within  the 
knowledge  or  remembrance  of  any  now  living. 

I  have  purposely  avoided  the  expressions  recent  use  and  modem  use,  as  these  seem 
to  stand  in  direct  opposition  to  what  is  ancient.  The  word  present,  on  the  other  hand, 
has  for  its  proper  contrary,  not  ancient,  but  obsolete.  Besides,  though  I  have  ac- 
knowledged language  to  be  a  species  of  mode  or  fashion,  as  doubtless  it  is,  yet,  being 
much  more  permanent  than  articles  of  apparel,  furniture,  and  the  like,  that,  in  regard 
to  their  form,  are  under  the  dominion  of  that  inconstant  power,  I  have  avoided  also 
using  the  words  fashionable  and  modish,  which  but  too  generally  convey  the  idea  of 
novelty  and  levity.  Words,  therefore,  are  by  no  means  to  be  accounted  the  worse  for 
being  old,  if  they  are  not  obsolete ;  neither  is  any  word  the  better  for  being  new.  On 
the  contrary,  some  time  is  absolutely  necessary  to  constitute  that  custom  or  use,  on 
which  the  establishment  of  words  depends. 

If  we  recur  to  the  standard  already  assigned,  namely,  the  writings  of  a  plurality  of 
celebrated  authors,  there  will  be  no  scope  for  the  comprehension  of  words  and  idioms 
which  can  be  denominated  novel  and  upstart.  It  must  be  owned,  that  we  often  meet 
with  such  terms  and  phrases,  in  newspapers  and  other  periodicals.  But  this  is  not 
of  itself  sufficient  to  give  them  the  stamp  of  authority.  Such  words  and  phrases  are 
but  the  insects  of  a  season  at  the  most.  The  popular  fancy,  always  fickle,  is  just  as 
prompt  to  drop  such  words,  as  it  was  to  take  them  up ;  and  not  one  of  a  hundred  but- 
Tives  the  particular  occasion  which  gave  it  birth. 


CHAPTER  III. 

SENTENCES. 

A  Sentence  is  such  an  assemblage  of  words  as  will  make 
complete  sense. 

Sentences  are  considered  under  the  following  heads : 
1.  Kinds  of  Sentences ;  2.  Rules  for  the  Construction  of 
Sentences. 

I.     KINDS    OF    SENTENCES. 

Grammatical  Classiflcation.  —  Sentences,  considered  grammatically,  are 
divided  into  Simple,  Compound,  Complex,  and  Connected. 

Rhetorical  Classiflcation. — Sentences,  considered  rhetoric- 
ally, are  divided  into  Periodic,  Loose,  Balanced,  Short,  and 
Long. 

1.  Periodic  Sentences. 
/-  A  Periodic  Sentence  is  one  which  is  so  constructed  that  it 

does  not  give  a  completed  meaning  until  the  very  close. 
The  main  point  is  kept  in  suspense  until  all  the  subsidiary 
members  and  clauses  are  disposed  of 

Example  from  Temple. — The  following,  from  Sir  William  Temple, 
is  an  example  of  a  periodic  sentence  : 

If  you  look  about  you,  and  consider  the  lives  of  others  as  well  as  your  own ;  if  you 
think  how  few  are  born  with  honor,  and  how  many  die  without  name  or  children ; 
how  little  beauty  we  see,  and  how  few  friends  we  hear  of;  how  many  diseases,  and 
how  much  poverty  there  is  in  the  world ;  you  will  fall  down  upon  your  knees,  and, 
instead  of  repining  at  your  affliction,  will  admire  so  many  blessings  which  you  havi 
received  at  the  hand  of  God. 

87 


88  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Example  from  Milton.  —  If  the  opening  lines  of  Paradise  Lost  were 
to  stop  at  "heavenly  Muse,"  in  the  sixth  line,  the  sentence  would 
be  periodic.  Short  of  these  words  there  is  no  point  where  there 
would  be  a  completed  meaning. 

Of  man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  touch 
Brought  death  into  the  world,  and  all  our  woe, 
With  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  Man 
Restore  us,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat, 
Sing,  heavenly  Muse. 

Example  Continued.  —  The  author,  however,  does  not  stop  the  sen- 
tence here,  but  goes  on  for  eleven  lines  farther,  adding  clause  upon 
clause,  and  thought  upon  thought,  until  the  periodic  character  of 
the  sentence  disappears  altogether.  The  sentence  does  not  actually 
stop  until  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  line,  although  there  are  several 
places  before  that  where  a  close  might  be  made  without  incomplete- 
ness.    Thus : 

Sing,  heavenly  Muse,  |  that  on  the  secret  top 
Of  Oreb,  or  of  Sinai,  didst  inspire 

That  shepherd,  who  first  taught  the  chosen  seed,  * 

In  the  beginning  how  the  heaven  and  earth 
Rose  out  of  chaos :  |  or,  if  Sion  hill 
^  Delight  thee  more,  and  Siloa's  brook  that  flowed 

Fast  by  the  oracle  of  God,  I  thence 
Invoke  thy  aid  to  my  adventurous  song,  | 
That  with  no  middle  flight  intends  to  soar 
Above  the  Aonian  mount,  |  while  it  pursues 
Things  unattempted  yet  in  prose  or  rhyme. 

It  is  obvious  that  a  completed  meaning  would  have  been  given, 
had  the  sentence  stopped  at  '<  chaos,"  at  "song,"  or  at  "mount." 


2.  Loose  Sentences. 
A  Loose  Sentence  is  one  which  is  so  constructed  that  it 
may  be  brought  to  a  close  at  two  or  more  different  places, 
and  in  each  case  give  a  completed  meaning. 

TJses  of  the  Loose  Sentence. — A  Loose  Sentence  is  not  jaecessarily 
faulty.  When  the  sentences  are  all  entirely  periodic  in  structure, 
the  composition  becomes  monotonous  and  stiff.  A  proper  variety 
requires,  in  long  pieces  especially,  that  periodic  sentences  should 
be  interspersed  ocoasionally  with  those  that  are  loose  in  their  struc- 
ture. 


SENTENCES  —  LOOSE.  89 

Dangers  of  the  Loose  Sentence.  —  The  danger  with  most  writers  is 
that  of  having  too  many  loose  sentences,  and  of  indulging  in  this 
mode  of  expression  through  mere  carelessness.  The  proper  man- 
agement of  the  loose  sentence,  where  it  is  used,  requires  much  care 
and  skill.  Young  and  inexperienced  writers  should  aim  almost 
uniformly  to  make  their  sentences  periodic. 

Difference  of  Writers  in  this  respect. — Writers  differ  much  in  the 
formation  of  their  sentences  in  this  respect.  In  modern  writings, 
the  short,  rounded  period  is  much  more  common  than  it  was  some 
centuries  ago.  Much  of  the  solemn  pomp  and  majestic  stateliness 
of  Milton's  style,  whether  in  prose  or  verse,  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
his  sentences  are  rarely  periodic.  It  would  be  a  mistake,  however, 
to  suppose,  on  this  account,  that  they  are  careless  or  unstudied. 
On  the  contrary,  they  are  thoroughly  artistic,  and  they  show  as 
much  studious  care  as  the  most  highly  finished  periods  of  Macaulay. 

The  following  is  an  example  from  Milton : 

Then  amidst  the  hymns  and  hallelujahs  of  saints,  some  one  may  perhaps  be  heard 
offering,  at  high  strains  in  new  and  lofty  measures,  to  sing  and  celebrate  thy  di^'ine 
mercies,  and  marvellous  judgments  in  this  land  throughout  all  ages ;  whereby  this 
great  and  warlike  nation,  instructed  and  inured  to  the  fervent  and  continual  practice 
of  truth  and  righteousness,  and  casting  far  from  her  the  rags  of  her  old  vices,  may 
press  on  hard  to  that  high  and  happy  emulation  to  be  found  the  soberest,  wisest, 
and  most  Christian  people  at  that  day,  whenThoa,  the  eternal  and  shortly  expected 
King,  shalt  open  the  clouds  to  judge  the  several  kingdoms  of  the  world,  and  distrib- 
uting national  honors  and  rewards  to  religious  and  just  commonwealths,  shalt  put 
an  end  to  all  earthly  tyrannies,  proclaiming  thy  universal  and  mild  monarchy 
through  heaven  and  earth ;  where  they,  undoubtedly,  that  by  their  labors,  counsels, 
and  prayers,  have  been  earnest  for  the  common  good  of  their  religion  and  their  coun- 
try, shall  receive  above  the  inferior  orders  of  the  blessed  the  regal  addition  of  princi- 
palities, legions,  and  thrones  into  their  glorious  titles,  and,  in  supereminence  of  bea- 
tific vision,  progressing  the  dateless  and  irrsvoluble  circle  of  eternity,  shall  clasp 
inseparable  hands  with  joy  and  bliss,  in  overmeasure  for  ever.* 

Compare  this  with  the  following  from  Macaulay : 

An  acre  in  Middlesex  is  worth  a  principality  in  Utopia.  The  smallest  actual  good 
is  better  than  the  most  magnificent  promises  of  impossibilities.  The  wise  man  of  the 
Stoics  would,  no  doubt,  be  a  grander  object  than  a  steam-engine.  But  there  are 
steam-engines,  and  the  wise  man  of  the  Stoics  is  yet  to  be  bom.  A  philosophy  which 
should  enable  a  man  to  feel  perfectly  happy  while  in  agonies  of  pain,  may  be  better 
than  a  philosophy  which  assuages  pain.  But  we  know  that  there  are  remedies  which 
will  assuage  pain ;  and  we  know  that  the  ancient  sages  liked  the  tooth-ache  just  as 
little  as  their  neighbors. 

The  following  paragraph  from  Channing  will  illustrate  the  same 
point: 

*  Of  Reformation  in  England,  last  paragraph  but  one. 


90  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Beanty  Is  an  all-pervading  presence.  It  unfolds  in  the  nnmbcrless  flowers  of  th« 
spring.  It  waves  in  the  branches  of  the  trees  and  the  green  blades  of  grass.  It 
haunts  the  depths  of  the  earth  and  sea,  and  gleams  out  in  the  hues  of  the  shell  and 
the  precious  stone.  And  not  only  these  minute  objects,  but  the  ocean,  the  moun- 
tains, the  clouds,  the  heavens,  the  stars,  the  rising  and  setting  sun,  all  overflow  with 
beauty.  The  universe  is  its  temple ;  and  those  men  who  are  alive  to  it,  cannot  lift 
up  their  lives  without  feeling  themselves  encompassed  with  it  on  every  side. 

Becommendation  to  Beginners.  —  In  a  majority  of  cases,  particu- 
larly with  careless  writers,  if  a  sentence  is  not  periodic,  it  is  faulty. 
It  is  well  therefore  for  beginners  to  make  a  special  study  of  sen- 
tences in  reference  to  this  point,  and  to  exercise  themselves  in  re- 
constructing loose  sentences  so  as  to  give  them  a  periodic  character. 

Example. — Take  the  following : 

"We  came  to  our  journey's  end,  |  at  last,  |  with  no  small  diflBculty,  |  after  much 
fatigue,  I  through  deep  roads,  |  and  bad  weather. 

This  is  a  very  loose  sentence,  there  being  no  less  than  five  differ- 
ent places,  at  any  one  of  which  the  sentence  might  be  terminated, 
so  as  to  be  grammatically  complete.  The  sentence  may  be  recon- 
structed and  made  periodic,  as  follows : 

At  last,  after  much  fatigue,  through  deep  roads,  and  bad  weather,  we  came,  with 
no  small  difficulty,  to  our  journey's  end. 

Archbishop  Trench,  justly  celebrated  for  his  contributions  to  our 
knowledge  of  the  English  tongue,  is  sometimes  exceedingly  careless 
in  the  construction  of  his  sentences.  The  following  is  taken  from 
the  preface  to  his  "Studies  in  the  Gospels"  : 

Gathering  up  lately  a  portion  of  what  I  had  written,  for  publication,  I  have  given 
it  as  careful  a  revision  as  my  leisure  would  allow,  have  indeed  in  many  parts  rewrit- 
ten it,  seeking  to  profit  by  the  results  of  the  latest  criticism,  as  far  as  I  have  been 
able  to  acquaint  mysejf  with  them. 

No  one  versed  in  composition  can  read  this  sentence  without  feel- 
ing that  it  is  put  together  very  loosely.  First,  the  words  "for  pub- 
lication" are  out  of  place.  Standing  where  they  do,  they  make  the 
author  say  that  he  "  had  written  for  publication,"  which  is  just  the 
opposite  of  what  he  means.  His  meaning  is  that  he  had  written  a 
good  many  things,  and  he  now  gathers  them  up  for  publication.  By 
transposing  these  words  to  their  proper  place,  and  by  dividing  the 
passage  into  two  distinct  sentences,  the  whole  becomes  more  clear  to 
the  apprehension  of  the  reader. 

Gathering  up  lately  for  publication  a  portion  of  what  I  had  written,  I  have  given 
it  as  careful  a  revision  as  my  leisure  would  allow.  I  have  indeed  in  many  parts 
rewritten  it,  seeking  to  profit  by  the  results  of  the  latest  criticism,  as  far  as  I  have 
been  able  to  acquaint  myself  with  thorn. 


SENTENCES  —  LOOSE.  91 

Another  Example  from  Trench.  —  The  sentence  following  the  one 
already  quoted  is  even  more  faulty  in  construction.     It  is  as  follows : 

For  my  labors  I  shall  be  abundantly  repaid,  if  now,  when  so  many  controversies  ara 
drawing  away  the  Christian  student  from  the  rich  and  quiet  pastures  of  Scripture  to 
other  fields,  not  perhaps  barren,  but  which  can  yield  no  such  nourishment  as  these 
do,  I  shall  have  contributed  aught  to  detain  any  among  them. 

In  attempting  to  give  a  periodic  form  to  a  loose  sentence  of  this 
kind,  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  reconstruct  the  sentence  entirely. 
The  best  perhaps  that  can  be  done,  in  the  present  instance,  is  to 
make  it  read  thus: 

For  my  labors  I  shall  be  abundantly  repaid,  if  I  shall  have  contributed  aught  to 
detain  the  Christian  student  among  the  rich  and  quiet  pastures  of  Scripture,  now 
when  so  many  costroversies  are  drawing  him  away  to  other  fields,  not  perhaps  barren, 
but  which  can  yield  no  such  nourishment  as  these  do. 

Examples  for  Practice. 
[The  following  Loose  Sentences  are  to  be  reconstructed,  so  as  to  become  Periodic] 

1.  Shaftesbury's  strength  lay  in  reasoning  and  sentiment,  more 
than  in  description ;  however  much  his  descriptions  have  been  ad- 
mired. 

2.  They  aspired  to  gaze  full  on  the  intolerable  brightness  of  the 
Deity,  instead  of  catching  occasional  glimpses  of  him  through  an 
obscuring  veil. 

3.  They  despised  all  the  accomplishments  and  all  the  dignities  of 
the  world,  confident  of  the  favor  of  God. 

4.  Milton  always  selected  for  himself  the  boldest  literary  services, 
that  he  might  shake  the  foundations  of  debasing  sentiments  more 
effectually. 

5.  Milton's  nature  selected  and  drew  to  itself  whatever  was  great 
and  good  from  the  parliament  and  from  the  court,  from  the  con- 
venticle and  from  the  cloister,  from  the  gloomy  and  sepulchral  circles 
of  the  Roundheads  and  from  the  Christmas  revel  of  the  hospitable 
Cavalier. 

6.  She  had  probably  already  filled  her  pitcher,  when  the  stranger 
at  the  well,  whom  she  may  have  seen  only  to  avoid,  for  she  recog- 
nized in  him  those  unmistakable  features  of  Jewish  physiognomy 
•with  which  the  Samaritans  had  nothing  in  common,  to  her  surprise 
addressed  her. 

7.  It  is  certain  that  his  contrivances  seldom  failed  to  serve  the 
purpose  for  which  they  were  designed,  whatever  may  be  thought  of 
the  humanity  of  some  of  them. 


92  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

8.  Burke's  mind,  at  once  philosophical  and  poetical,  found  some- 
thing to  instruct  and  to  delight,  in  every  part  of  those  huge  bales  of 
Indian  information,  which  repelled  almost  all  other  readers. 

9.  When  Hastings  was  first  impeached,  if  he  had  at  once  pleaded 
guilty,  and  paid  a  fine  of  fifty  thousand  pounds,  he  would  have  been 
better  oflF,  in  every  thing  except  character. 

10.  He  would  still  have  had  a  moderate  competence,  after  all  his 
losses,  if  he  had  practised  a  strict  economy. 

11.  It  is  to  the  citizens,  —  our  object,  to  assure  to  our  country  a 
tranquil  future,  — not  as  ordering,  but  as  offering  patriotic  counsel, 
we  address  ourselves ;  to  the  end  that,  as  in  the  humblest  dwelling, 
the  son  may  succeed  the  father  in  peace  and  quiet  on  the  throne. 

12.  Some  wished  to  come  to  the  assistance  of  the  defeated  general ; 
others  laughed  and  encouraged  her ;  and  still  others,  men  in  blue 
blouses  and  heavy  hob-nailed  shoes,  who  were  regular  customers  at 
the  Green  Hat  with  their  wagons  and  horses,  and  bore  no  good-will 
to  the  rope-dancers,  because  they  interfered  with  their  accustomed 
comfort,  spoke  low  of  "rabble,"  and  "turn  them  out,"  a  sentiment 
which  in  its  turn  displeased  a  few  enthusiastic  admirers  of  high  art. 

13.  Whether  she  is  still  wandering  about  in  the  desert,  like  Lady 
Stanhope,  with  a  man  who  had  ceased,  when  Sydney  met  them,  to 
exhibit  the  devotion  of  a  lover,  in  trained  skirts,  with  the  latest  pat- 
tern gloves  and  bonnet,  with  Marie  Stuart  points,  or  whether  she 
sickened  of  the  Orient  and  came  back  to  Europe,  is  not  known. 

14.  His  habitation  is  some  poor  thatched  roof,  distinguished  from 
his  barn  by  the  loop-holes  that  let  out  smoke,  which  the  rain  had 
long  since  washed  through,  but  for  the  double  ceiling  of  bacon  on 
the  inside,  which  has  hung  there  from  his  grandsire's  time,  and  is 
yet  to  make  rashers  for  posterity. 

15.  The  new  philosophy  has  introduced  so  great  a  correspondence 
between  men  of  learning  and  men  of  business ;  which  has  also  been 
increased  by  other  accidents  amongst  the  masters  of  other  learned 
professions ;  and  that  pedantry  which  formerly  was  almost  universal 
is  now  in  a  great  measure  disused,  especially  amongst  the  young 
men,  who  are  taught  in  the  universities  to  laugh  at  that  frequent 
citation  of  scraps  of  Latin  in  common  discourse,  or  upon  arguments 
that  do  not  require  it;  and  tliat  nauseous  ostentation  of  reading  and 
scholarship  in  public  companies,  which  formerly  was  so  much  in 
fashion. 

16.  However,  this  proved  a  troublesome  work,  and  after  all,  inef- 
fectual for  the  security  of  men's  private  morals,  which  the  example 


SENTENCES — BALANCED.  93 

of  the  licentious  story,  according  to  the  latter,  would  not  fail  to 
influence,  how  well  soever  the  allegoric  interpretation  was  calculated 
to  cover  the  public  honor  of  religion ;  so  that  the  more  ethical  of  the 
philosophers  grew  peevish  with  what  gave  them  so  much  trouble,  and 
answered  so  little  to  the  interior  of  religious  practice. 

17.  An  unseen  hand  sweeps  over  the  keys  of  the  mighty  instru- 
ment, which,  after  centuries  of  study,  men  are  just  beginning  to 
understand,  and  the  listening  ear  catches  the  swell  of  the  deep  notes 
of  triumph,  while  glad  notes  of  rejoicing  and  bitter  sounds  of  woe 
make  no  discord,  called  forth  by  the  master-hand. 

18.  The  sides  of  the  crater  went  sheer  down  to  a  great  depth,  en- 
closing a  black  abyss  which,  in  the  first  excitement  of  the  scene,  th» 
startled  fancy  might  well  imagine  extending  to  the  bowels  of  the 
earth,  from  which  there  came  rolling  up  vast  clouds,  dense,  black, 
sulphurous,  which  at  times  completely  encircled  them,  shutting  out 
everything  from  view,  filling  eyes,  nose,  and  mouth  with  fumes  of 
brimstone,  forcing  them  to  hold  the  tails  of  their  coats  or  the  skirts 
(it 's  all  the  same  thing)  over  their  faces,  so  as  not  to  be  altogether 
suffocated,  while  again  after  a  while  a  fierce  blast  of  wind  driving 
downward  would  hurl  the  smoke  away,  and  dashing  it  against  the 
other  side  of  the  crater,  gather  it  up  in  dense  volumes  of  blackest 
smoke  in  thick  clouds  which  rolled  up  the  flinty  cliffs,  and  reaching 
the  summit  bounded  fiercely  out  into  the  sky,  to  pass  on  and  be  seen 
from  afar  as  that  dread  pennant  of  Vesuvius,  which  is  the  sign  and 
symbol  of  its  mastery  over  the  earth  around  it  and  the  inhabitants 
thereof,  ever  changing  and  in  all  its  changes  watched  with  awe  by 
fearful  men  who  read  in  those  changes  their  own  fate,  now  taking 
heart  as  they  see  it  more  tenuous  in  its  consistency,  anon  shuddering 
as  they  see  it  gathering  in  denser  folds,  and  finally  awe-stricken  and 
all  overcome  as  they  see  the  thick  black  cloud  rise  proudly  up  to 
heaven  in  a  long  straight  column  at  whose  upper  termination  the 
colossal  pillar  spreads  itself  out  and  shows  to  the  startled  gaze  the 
dread  symbol  of  the  cypress-tree  the  herald  of  earthquakes,  erup- 
tions, and —  The  Dodge  Club. 

3.  Balanced  Sentences. 
1/      A  Balanced  Sentence  is  one  containing  two  clauses  which 
are  similar  in  form  and  to  some  extent  contrasted  in  mean- 
ing.    A  Balanced  Sentence   is  seldom   loose,  though   not 
necessarily  periodic. 


94  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Dr.  Jolmson  abounds  in  sentences  of  this  kind.  The  following  are 
examples : 

The  stylo  of  Dryden  is  capricions  and  Taried,  that  of  Pope  is  cautions  and  nniform. 
Dryden  obeys  the  motions  of  bis  own  mind,  Pope  constrains  his  mind  to  his  own  rule 
of  compoeiticm.  Dryden  is  swnetimes  vehement  and  rapid.  Pope  is  always  smooth, 
uniform,  and  level.  Dryden's  page  is  a  natural  field,  rising  into  inequalities,  and 
diversified  by  tl>e  varied  exuberance  of  abundant  vegetation.  Pope's  is  a  velvet  lawn, 
shaven  by  the  scythe,  and  levelled  by  the  roller. 

Dryden  knew  more  of  man  in  his  general  nature,  and  Tape  in  his  local  manners. 
The  notions  of  Dryden  were  formed  by  comprehensive  speculation,  and  those  of  Pope 
by  minute  attention.  There  is  more  digmty  in  the  knowledge  of  Dryden,  and  more 
certainty  in  that  of  Pope. 

The  man  is  little  to  be  envied  whose  patriotism  would  not  gain  force  ort  the  plains 
of  Marathon,  or  whose  piety  would  not  grow  warmer  among  the  ruins  of  lona. 

Junios  affords  numerous  examples  : 

But,  my  lord,  you  may  quit  the  field  of  business,  though  not  the  field  of  danger ; 
and,  though  you  cannot  be  safe,  you  may  cease  to  be  ridiculous. 

They  are  still  base  enough  to  encourage  the  follies  of  your  age,  as  they  once  did  the 
rices  of  your  youth. 

Even  now  they  tell  you,  that  as  you  lived  without  virtue  you  should  die  without 
repentance. 

Pope.  —  Perhaps  no  English  writer  has  given  more  finished  speci- 
mens of  this  kind  of  sentence  than  Pope,  and  that  both  in  his  poetry 
and  in  his  prose. 

Worth  makes  the  man,  the  want  of  it  the  fellow. 

Homer  was  the  greater  genius ;  Virgil  the  better  artist ;  in  the  one,  we  most  admire 
the  man ;  in  the  other,  the  work.  Homer  hurries  us  with  a  commanding  impetuos- 
ity ;  Virgil  leads  us  with  an  attractive  majesty.  Homer  scatters  with  a  generous  pro- 
fusion ;  Virgil  bestows  with  a  careful  magnificence.  Homer,  like  the  Nile,  pours  out 
his  riches  with  a  sudden  overflow ;  Virgil,  like  a  river  in  its  banks,  with  a  constant 
stream.  And  when  we  look  upon  their  machines.  Homer  seems  like  his  own  Jupiter, 
in  bis  terrors,  shaking  Olympus,  scattering  the  lightnings,  and  firing  the  heavens ; 
Virgil,  like  the  same  power,  in  his  benevolence,  counselling  with  the  gods,  laying 
plans  for  empires,  and  ordering  his  whole  creation. 

Various  Sources. — The  following  examples  are  from  various  sources : 

In  pe»»ce,  children  bury  their  parents;  in  war,  parents  bury  their  children. 

If  you  wish  to  enrich  a  person,  study  not  to  increase  his  stores,  but  to  diminish  his 
desims. 

Words  are  the  counters  of  wise  men,  and  the  money  of  fools. 

A  jugglor  is  a  wit  in  things,  and  a  wit  a  juggler  in  words. 

When  we  meet  an  apparent  error  in  a  good  author,  we  are  to  presume  ourselves 
Ignorant  of  his  undorstanding,  until  we  are  certain  that  we  understand  his  ignorance. 

Charity  creates  much  of  the  misery  it  relieves,  but  does  not  relieve  all  the  misery 
it  creates. 

Not  that  I  loved  Ctesar  less,  bat  that  I  loved  Rome  more. 


SENTENCES  —  SHORT  AND  LONG.      95 

Use  of  the  Balanced  Sentence.  —  The  Balanced  Sentence 
is  well  suited  to  satire  and  epigram,  and  to  essays  in  which 
characters  are  delineated,  or  subjects  are  set  off  by  contrast. 
It  may  often  be  used  also  in  declamation  and  oratory.  But 
it  is  rarely  proper  in  narrative,  or  in  description. 

Hebrew  Poetry.  —  Balanced  sentences  of  a  somewhat  peculiar  kind 
are  to  be  found  in  Hebrew  poetry.  The  sort  of  construction  here 
referred  to  is  called  Parallelism,  and  is  an  invariable  characteristic 
of  Hebrew  verse.  • 

A  wise  son  maketh  a  glad  father :  but  a  foolish  son  is  the  heaviness  of  his  mother. 

Treasures  of  wickedness  profit  nothing :  but  righteousness  delivereth  from  death. 

The  Lord  will  not  suffer  the  soul  of  the  righteous  to  famish :  but  he  casteth  away 
the  substance  of  the  wicked. 

He  becometh  poor  that  dealeth  with  a  slack  hand :  but  the  hand  of  the  diligent 
maketh  rich. 

He  that  gathereth  in  summer  is  a  wise  son :  but  he  that  sleepeth  in  harvest  is  a  son 
that  causeth  shame. 

Blessings  are  upon  the  head  of  the  just :  but  violence  covereth  the  mouth  of  the 
wicked. 

The  memory  of  the  just  is  blessed :  but  the  name  of  the  wicked  shall  rot. 

The  book  of  Job,  the  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Song  of  Solomon,  Eccle- 
siastes,  a  large  part  of  the  Prophetical  books,  and  the  poetical  por- 
tions of  all  the  other  books,  are  made  up  entirely  of  these  paral- 
lelisms. 

4i  Short  and  Long  Sentences. 

Short  and  Long. — The  division  of  sehtences  into  Short  and  Long 
does  not  require  definition.  The  terms  explain  themselves.  It  is 
well,  however,  to  notice  the  rhetorical  eflfect  produced  by  each. 

Ehetorical  Effect. — A  fact  or  a  truth,  expressed  in  several  short 
detached  sentences,  is  usually  more  easily  understood  than  when 
expressed  in  one  long,  involved  sentence.  Short  sentences  also  give 
sprightliness  and  animation  to  the  style.  On  the  other  hand,  too 
great  a  succession  of  short  sentences  becomes  monotonous  and  tire- 
some. A  long  sentence  also,  if  well  constructed,  gives  a  fine  oppor- 
tunity for  climax. 

French  and  German  Writers.  —  French  writers  generally  are  char- 
acterized by  their  fondness  for  this  kind  of  sentences,  while  German* 


96  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

are  equally  remarkable  for  sentences  which  are  long,  involved,  and 
oumbersome. 

Bishop  Doane. — Among  American  writers  of  note,  Bishop  Doane 
habitually  cast  his  thoughts  into  the  form  of  brief,  epigrammatic 
sentences,  and  not  unfrequently  carried  his  partiality  for  this  style 
of  writing  to  an  extreme.  The  following  are  examples  from  his 
sermons : 

"  The  chntch's  work  is  spirit- work.  Not  to  be  done  amid  the  heat  and  noise  of 
controversy ;  not  to  be  done  through  the  polemic  rage  of  pamphlets,  and  of  news- 
papers; not  to  be  done  in  the  Conventions  and  Councils  of  the  Church.  It  must  be 
done  in  private.  It  must  bo  done  in  the  closet.  It  must  be  done  in  the  sanctuary. 
It  must  be  done  in  schools.  It  must  be  done  in  families.  It  must  be  done  in  parishes. 
It  must  be  done  in  the  room  of  sickness.  It  must  be  done  in  the  death  chamber." 
Works,  Vol.  2,  p.  374. 

"Look  at  the  Deacon  Stephen.  His  faithful  proclamation  of  the  word  oflFends  the 
Jews.  They  cannot  combat  him  with  reason  or  with  truth.  They  hire  false  wit- 
nesses. They  stir  the  people  up.  They  set  him  before  the  Council.  They  condemn 
him  falsely.  They  cast  him  from  the  city.  They  bind,  they  strip,  they  starA'e  him. 
He  stands.    He  looks  to  heaven.    He  prays  for  them.    He  dies." — Vol.  2,  p.  521. 


Rule  on  the  Subject.  —  In  regard  to  the  use  of  these 
several  kinds  of  sentences,  Periodic  and  Loose,  Balanced, 
Short  and  Long,  the  only  general  rule  that  can  be  given 
is  to  study  variety. 

The  ear  tires  of  any  one  kind  of  sentences,  when  long  continued. 
The  style  becomes  monotonous.  It  is  better  even  to  introduce 
occasionally  a  sentence  that  by  itself  would  be  faulty,  than  to  have 
sentences  in  long  succession  all  formed  on  the  same  model,  however 
excellent  that  model  may  be. 

Note.  The  practice  of  reconstructing  sentences,  resolving  long  complex  sentences 
Into  short  ones,  and  combining  short  independent  sentences  into  long  connected  ones, 
is  a  very  useful  exercise  for  the  student.  In  making  these  changes,  a  slight  change 
of  words  is  sometimes  necessary.  It  is  also  necessary  occasionally  to  introduce  a  new 
word,  such  as  but,  and,  thtrefore,  however,  and  the  like.  The  sentences  thus  recon- 
Btructed  are  not  necessarily  improved  thereby.  The  object  of  the  exercise  is  to  loam 
how  to  vary  the  form  of  a  sentence  and  yet  express  clearly  the  meaning.  Whether  in 
Rny  particular  case  the  form  should  be  thus  changed  must  be  left  to  the  taste  and 
judgment  of  the  writer. 

Example.  "  Few  words  she  uttered ;  and  they  were  all  expressive  of  some  inward 
grief  which  she  cared  not  to  reveal ;  biit  sighs  and  groans  were  the  chief  vent  which 
■ho  g^e  to  her  despondency,  and  which,  though  they  discovered  her  sorrows,  were 
never  able  to  eaae  or  assuage  them." 

Recomtructtd.    Few  words  she  uttered;  and  they  were  all  expressive  of 


SENTENCES  —  SHOET  AND  LONG.      97 

some  inward  grief  which  she  cared  not  to  reveal.  Sighs  and  groans,  however,  were  the 
cliief  vent  which  she  gave  to  her  despondency.  These,  though  they  discovered  her 
sorrows,  were  never  able  to  ease  or  assuage  them. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[NoTB.  The  examples  which  follow  are  partly  long  sentences  which  are  to  be  resolved 
into  short  ones,  and  partly  short  sentences  which  are  to  be  combined  into  long  ones.] 

1.  I  know  that  that  prayer  will  be  answered.  I  know  that  that 
love  will  be  shed  abroad.  I  know  that  it  will  swell  all  hearts.  I 
know  that  it  will  kindle  every  tongue.  I  know  that  it  will  be  in 
every  hand  more  than  a  sword  of  fire. 

2.  The  countess  was  prevailed  on  by  her  husband,  the  mortal 
enemy  of  Essex,  not  to  execute  the  commission ;  and  Elizabeth,  who 
slill  expected  that  her  favorite  would  make  this  last  appeal  to  her 
tenderness,  and  who  ascribed  the  neglect  of  it  to  his  invincible  ob- 
stinacy, was,  after  much  delay  and  many  internal  conflicts,  pushed  by 
resentment  and  policy  to  sign  the  warrant  for  his  execution.  [Divide 
into  four  sentences.] 

3.  The  wise  ministers  and  brave  warriors  who  flourished  under 
her  reign,  share  the  praise  of  her  success.  Instead,  however,  of 
lessening  the  applause  due  to  her,  they  make  great  addition  to  it. 
[Combine  into  one  sentence.] 

4.  As  the  disposition  to  criticize,  and  to  be  disgusted,  is,  perhaps, 
taken  up  originally  by  imitation,  and  is,  unawares,  grown  into  a 
habit,  which,  though  at  present  strong,  may  nevertheless  be  cured, 
when  those  who  have  it  are  convinced  of  its  bad  eff'ects  on  their 
felicity  ;  I  hope  this  little  admonition  may  be  of  service  to  them,  and 
put  them  on  changing  a  habit,  which,  though  in  the  exercise  it  is 
chiefly  an  act  of  imagination,  yet  has  serious  consequences  in  life,  as 
it  brings  on  real  griefs  and  misfortunes. 

5.  The  land  journey  was  no  longer  thought  of.  The  Greeks  were 
too  well  known.  They  had  but  recently  massacred  the  Latins  in 
Constantinople.  Vessels  were  required  for  the  voyage  by  sea.  The 
Venetians  were  applied  to.  The  traders  took  advantage  of  the  neces- 
sity of  the  Crusaders.  They  would  not  supply  them  with  transports 
under  eighty-five  thousand  marks  of  silver.  They  chose  to  Jake  a 
share  in  the  Crusade.  In  return  they  stipulated  for  a  moiety  of  the 
conquests. 

6.  At  first,  this  immense  concert  of  simple  and  barbarous  voices  — 
like  the  chanting  on  Christmas  eve,  in  the  sombre  light  of  a  huge 
cathedral  —  sounds  harsh  and  grating  on  the  ear,  and  strange  ac- 
cents, singular  and  fearful  and  hardly  human  voices,  mingle  in  th« 

9* 


98  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

deep  acclaim;  so  as  to  render  it  doubtful  whether  you  have  the 
hymn  of  thanksgiving  for  our  Saviour's  birth,  or  the  dissonant 
strains  of  the  Festival  of  Fools,  making  a  wild,  fantastic  harmony, 
unlike  aught  else,  and  in  which  every  hymn  seems  to  mingle,  from 
the  solemn  strain  of  Dies  Irse  to  the  thrilling  burst  of  the  Alleluia. 

7.  Many  a  wife  sinks  into  the  character  of  a  mere  housekeeper. 
The  husband  accepts  the  arrangement.  One  is  not  expected  to  chat 
with  one's  housekeeper.  One  is  not  expected  to  stay  in  of  an  even- 
ing to  please  her.  This  consideration  explains  a  phenomenon  ex- 
hibited in  some  households. 

8.  I  am  satisfied.  The  ship  sails  on.  We  cannot  see,  but  we  can 
dream.  We  have  no  work,  no  pain.  I  like  the  ship.  I  like  the 
voyage.     I  like  the  company.     I  am  content.  , 

9.  The  story  of  the  waxen  wings  that  were  melted  by  the  sun  is 
no  unmeaning  fable,  and  the  continued  efforts  made  to  invent  a  bal- 
loon, or  other  contrivances  for  aerial  navigation,  is  but  an  expression 
of  the  great  tendency  of  humanity  to  reach  upward  and  beyond  for 
something  more  than  it  sees. 

10.  Antony  has  done  his  part.  He  holds  the  gorgeous  East  in  fee. 
He  has  avenged  Crassus.  He  will  make  kings,  though  he  be  none. 
He  is  amusing  himself,  and  Rome  must  bear  with  him.  He  has  his 
griefs  as  well  as  Csesar.  Let  the  sword  settle  their  disputes.  But 
he  is  no  longer  the*  man  to  leave  Cleopatra  behind.  She  sails  with 
him,  and  his  countrymen  proclaim  how  low  he  has  fallen. 

11.  The  Englishman  is  taciturn.  The  Frenchman  is  vivacious. 
The  Spaniard  is  morose.  The  American  is  talkative.  The  German 
is  meditative. 

12.  The  time  is  short.  Much  remains  to  be  done.  Prepare  for 
action. 

13.  Novels  as  a  class  are  injurious  to  young  people.  They  destroy 
the  taste  for  more  solid  reading.  They  cultivate  the  emotions  to  an 
undue  extent.     They  convey  false  impressions  of  life. 

14.  A  heavy  cannonade  was  kept  up  for  five  consecutive  hours. 
At  last  the  line  was  broken.  The  troops  retreated  in  the  best  possi- 
ble order. 

15.  Monkeys  belong  to.  the  order  of  bimanae,  or  animals  possess- 
ing two  hands,  living  generally  in  trees,  and  possessing  great  agility 
and  strength,  although  some  of  them  are  remarkably  small,  and  none 
of  them  attain  to  the  great  size  of  the  elephant,  which  is,  perhaps, 
the  largest  amimal  extant. 


/ 


SENTENCES  —  CLEARNESS.  99 


II.     RULES    FOR    THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF 

SENTENCES- 


B,UI<S    I.-CI.B  ARNESa. 

The  Words  should  be  so  arrang^  that  the  Meaning  cannot 

he  mistaken, 

Tke  Order  of  the  Words  Important.  —  Care  ia  the  arrangement  of 
the  words  is  especially  important  in  a  language  like  the  English, 
^hieh  has  so  few  grammatical  terminations.  In  Latin  and  Greek, 
the  relation  of  a  word  to  the  other  words  of  the  sentence  is  known 
at  once  by  its  form.  But  in  English  we  have  to  indicate  these  rela- 
tions by  the  place  in  which  the  word  stands. 

Example.  Were  we  to  say,  "  The  boy  the  girl  sees,"  there  is  nothing  to  show  which 
noun  is  the  subject  and  which  the  object  of  "seea."  If  we  turn  the  words  into  Latin, 
leaving  them  in  the  same  order  that  they  now  have,  the  meaning  is  made  plain  by  the 
termination  of  the  nouns,  and  is  changed  at  will  by  a  change  of  the  termination. 
Puer puellam  videt  means  " The  boy  sees  the  girl."  Puerum  pudla  videt  means  "The 
girl  sees  the  boy."  What  we  indicate  in  Latin  by  the  form  of  a  word,  we  are  obliged 
in  English  to  indicate  by  its  position.  Hence  it  becomes  of  gireat  importance  in  Eng- 
lish composition  to  arrange  the  words  in  such  a  manner  that  the  meaning  will  be  ob- 
vious, and  cannot  be  misunderstood. 

Let  us  proceed  to  some  particulars, 

1.  Position  of  the  Adverha. 
Ambiguity  is  often  produced  Tiy  the  improper  position  of  the  ad- 
verbs.    Care  should  be  taken  to  place  the  adverb  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  word  which  it  qualifies,  and  in  such  a  position,  either  before 
or  after,  that  it  cannot  easily  be  taken  to  qualify  any  other  word. 

" I  only  bring  forward  some  things."  —  Dean  Alffrrd.  Here,  " only''''  is  so  placed  as 
to  qualify  "bring,"  and  raises  the  query,  what  else  the  aiitb  )r  proposed  to  do,  or  could 
do,  besides  bringing  these  things  forward.  What  ho  in+f»nried  to  say,  was  that  these 
things  were  only  a  part  of  what  he  had  at  his  disposal.  The  "only"  has  reference  to 
the  "some  things,"  and  should  be  placed  as  near  to  those  words  as  possible.  If  placed 
immediately  before  them,  the  adverb  might  be  construed  with  " forward."  I  bring 
the  things  forward  only,  not  forward  and  backward,  or  r  't  up  and  down.  The  true 
order  of  the  words  is,  "  I  bring  forward  some  things  only.  Plenty  more  might  be 
aaid."     Here  the  arrangement  prevents  the  possibility  of  mistake. 

"By  greatness,  I  da  not  only  mean  the  bulk  of  any  single  object,  but  the  largeness 
of  a  whole  view."  —  Addison.  Here,  "only"  is  so  placed  as  to  qualify  "mean,"  and 
might  raise  the  question,  What  else  does  he  intend  to  do  7    In  like  manner,  if  the  adverb 


100  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETOEIC. 

ia  placed  after  "  bulk,"  the  question  might  be  asked,  If  it  is  the  bulk  only  that  you  art 
•peaking  about,  why  not  epeuk  also  of  the  color,  or  the  weight  ?  The  proper  order  is, 
♦'  By  greatness,  I  do  not  mean  the  bulk  of  any  single  object  only,  but  the  largeness  of 
a  whole  view."  In  the  sentence  as  thus  arranged,  "  only  "  carries  the  mind  back  to 
the  whols  phrase  "  the  greatness  of  a  single  object,"  and  thus  brings  out  perfectly  the 
contrast  intended  by  the  author,  "  the  largeness  of  a  whole  view." 

For  a  correct  use  of  the  word,  see  Ezekiel  14:  16.  "Though  these  three  men  [Noah, 
Daniel,  and  Job]  were  in  it  [the  land],  as  I  live,  saith  the  Lord  God,  they  shall  deliver 
neither  sons  nor  daughters ;  they  only  shall  be  delivered,  but  the  land  shall  be  desolate." 

"Theism  can  only  be  opposed  to  polytheism,  or  [to]  atheism."  —  Shaftesbury.  Did 
the  author  mean  that  theism  is  capable  of  nothing  else,  except  being  opposed  to  poly- 
theism, or  to  atheism  ?  or  did  he  mean  that  polytheism  and  atheism  are  the  only  things 
to  which  it  can  be  opposed?  If  the  latter,  the  correct  order  would  be :  "Theism  can 
be  opposed  only  to  polytheism,  or  [to]  atheism."  That  is,  it  can  be  opposed  to  these 
things  and  to  nothing  else. 

"  In  all  abstract  cases  where  we  merely  speak  of  numbers,  the  verb  is  better  singular." 
Alford.  The  question  might  be  asked,  what  if  we  vxrite  of  numbers,  as  well  as  spealt 
of  them  ?  But  the  author  evidently  intended  the  "  merely  "  to  limit  "  numbers  ; "  and 
be  should  have  written,  "  In  all  cases  where  we  speak  of  numbers  merely,  the  verb  ia 
better  singular." 

"  The  Romans  understood  liberty  at  least  as  well  as  we."  —  SwijFt.  If,  in  reading 
this,  we  emphasize  "liberty,"  the  meaning  is,  that  whatever  else  we  understand  better 
than  the  Romans  did,  liberty,  at  least,  was  one  thing  wjiich  they  understood  as  well 
as  we  do.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  put  the  emphasis  on  "we,"  the  meaning  is, 
liberty  was  understood  by  them  well,  as  well  at  least  as  by  us,  probably  better.  This 
meaning,  which  appears  to  be  what  the  author  intended,  would  have  been  expressed 
without  ambiguity  by  arranging  the  words  thus :  "  Th«  Romans  understood  liberty,  as 
well,  at  least,  ao  we." 

Blair's  Eemark. — On  this  part  of  the  subject,  Blair  makes  the 
following  judicious  remark  : 

'*  In  regard  to  such  adverbs  as  only,  wholly,  at  least,  the  fact  is 
that  in  common  discourse,  the  tone  and  emphasis  we  use  in  pro- 
nouncing them  generally  serves  to  show  their  reference,  and  to 
make  the  meaning  clear  ;  and  hence*  we  acquire  a  habit  of  throwing 
them  in  loosely  in  the  course  of  a  period.  But,  in  writing,  where 
a  man  speaks  to  the  eye,  and  not  to  the  ear,  he  ought  to  be  more 
accurate;  and  so  to  connect  those  adverbs  with  the  words  which 
they  qualify,  as  to  put  his  meaning  out  of  doubt,  upon  the  first 
inspection." 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[The  student  is  expected  to  criticlEe  and  correct  the  following  sentences  in  regard 
to  the  position  of  the  adverb.] 

1.  There  are  certain  miseries  in  idleness  which  the  idle  can  only 
conceive. 

2.  The  good  man  not  only  deserves  the  respect,  but  the  love  of  his 
fellow-beings. 


SENTENCES  —  CL:^ A-RNESS.  '    '  lO'l 


J  >  >  >  >  J 


3.  He  is  considered  generally  insane. 

4.  California  not  only  produces  gold  in  abundance,  but  quicksilver 
also. 

5.  It  was  by  the  English,  French,  Spanish,  and  Dutch,  that  the 
New  World  was  principally  colonized. 

6.  If  education  refined  only  the  manners,  we  might  do  without  it ; 
but  it  also  disciplines  the  mind  and  improves  the  heart. 

7.  The  productions  mostly  consist  of  corn  and  cotton. 

8.  It  was  by  hunting  and  fishing  that  the  Indians  chiefly  subsisted. 

9.  Cook  potatoes  with  their  jackets,  as  I  call  them,  on. 

10.  They  allowed  themselves  to  be  drawn  off  when  only  wearied 
of  their  own  excesses. 

11.  It  was  the  advantage  gained  precisely  by^the  Saxons  which 
ruined  them. 

^  12.  One  among  royal  houses  alone  did  not  recognize  the  rights  of 
women. 

13.  Port  wine  is  now  only  favored  by  two  classes. 

14.  To  contemplate  abstract  subjects  only  disciplines  the  mind, 
rarely  if  ever  interesting  it. 

15.  If  the  genius  of  the  dramatist  only  can  be  brought  to  recog- 
nize the  great  responsibilities  of  his  calling. 

16.  I  never  expect  to  see  Europe. 

17.  I  always  expect  to  spend  my  money  as  fast  as  I  get  it. 

18.  The  light,  sandy  soil  only  favors  the  fern. 

19.  He  was  elected,  but  only  was  seen  twice  in  the  House. 

20.  I  only  distribute  them  among  the  lower  ranks. 

21.  I  only  spoke  to  him.     I  did  not  speak  to  any  one  else. 

22.  The  French  nearly  lost  five  thousand  men. 

23.  He  merely  accompanied  me  to  the  brook.  I  was  obliged  to 
go  the  rest  of  the  way  by  myself. 

24.  I  did  not  talk  to  him,  but  to  you. 

25.  He  called  to  John  mildly,  pursuing  his  way  calmly  and  slowly 
along  the  stream. 

2.  Position  of  Adverhial  Clauses  and  Adjuncts. 

What  has  been  asserted  of  adverbs,  is  equally  true  of  what  may 
be  called  adverbial  clauses  and  adjuncts.  By  an  adverbial  clause 
or  adjunct  is  meant  a  number  of  words,  which,  taken  together,  limit 
the  meaning  of  some  other  word.  All  such  clauses  or  adjuncts 
should  be  so  placed  that  they  cannot  easily  be  taken  to  qualify  any 
other  word  than  that  for  which  they  are  intended. 


102,    .^    .PPKPQSJTI^N    AND    RHETORIC. 

'  *  •*  It 'cbn£ained  aVarVant  for  conducting  me  and  my  retinue  to  Traldragdubb,  or 
Trildrogdrib,  for  it  is  pronounced  both  ways,  as  near  as  I  can  remember,  by  a  party 
of  ten  horse."  —  Swift.  What  the  author  means  to  say,  is  that  he  and  his  retinue  ar» 
to  be  conducted  by  a  party  of  ten  horse.  What  he  does  say,  is  that  this  place  with  the 
hard  name  is  pronounced  both  ways  by  a  party  of  ten  horse. 

"The  following  lines  were  written  by  an  esteemed  friend,  who  has  lain  in  the  grave 
for  many  years,  for  his  own  amusement."  —  Anonymous.  The  author  means  that  his 
friend  had  written  the  lines  for  his  own  amusement.  What  he  says,  is  that  his  friend 
has  lain  in  the  grave  many  years  for  his  own  amusement ! 

In  the  English  House  of  Commons,  a  speaker  once  said  that  a  certain  witness  had 
been  "  ordered  to  withdraw  from  the  bar  in  consequence  of  being  intoxicated,  by  the 
motion  of  an  honorable  member,"  —  as  if  the  witness  was  intoxicated  by  the  motion! 
The  speaker  meant,  that,  "  in  consequence  of  being  intoxicated,  the  witness,  by  the 
motion  of  an  honorable  member,  had  been  ordered  to  withdraw  from  the  bar  of  the 
House." 

"The  beaux  of  that  day  used  the  abominable  art  of  painting  their  faces,  as  well  as 
the  women."  —  D' Israeli.  Ttiat  is,  the  beaux  not  only  painted  their  faces,  but  painted 
the  women  also !  The  author  meant  to  say,  "  The  beaux  of  that  day,  as  well  as  the 
women,  used  the  abominable  art  of  painting  their  faces." 

"  I  remember  when  the  French  band  of  the  '  Guides '  were  in  this  country,  reading 
in  the  '  Illustrated  News.' "  —  Alf(/rd.  The  author  seems  to  say  that  these  French- 
men were  reading  in  the  Illustrated  News.  He  means,  "  I  remember  reading  in  the 
Illustrated  News,  when  the  French  band  of  the  '  Guides'  were  in  this  country." 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[The  student  is  expected  to  criticize  and  amend  the  following  sentences,  in  regard 
to  the  position  of  the  adverbial  adjuncts  and  clauses.] 

1.  There  is  something  that  whispers  of  faith,  too,  in  repose. 

2.  He  was  born  in  the  old  New  England  town,  whose  colonial  his- 
tory is  so  tragically  memorable,  on  the  4th  of  July,  1804. 

3.  I  could  see  that  the  floor  had  been  swept  with  half  an  eye. 

4.  The  enemy  attacked  us  before  the  day  had  begun  to  break  at 
three  o'clock  in  the  morning. 

6.  He  went  to  town,  driving  a  flock  of  sheep,  on  horseback. 

6.  Wanted,  a  young  woman  to  take  care  of  two  orphan  children, 
of  a  religious  turn  of  mind. 

7.  Dr.  Hall  will  deliver  a  lecture  on  the  importance  of  taking 
exercise  before  breakfast  at  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon. 

8.  Wanted,  a  room  for  a  single  gentlemen,  twelve  feet  long  and  six 
feet  wide. 

9.  Lost,  a  cow  belonging  to  an  old  woman,  with  brass  knobs  on 
her  horns. 

10.  Slie  lived  a  life  of  virtue,  and  died  of  the  cholera  morbus, 
caused  by  eating  green  fruit,  in  the  full  hope  of  a  blessed  immortality, 
at  the  age  of  twenty-one.     Reader,  go  thou  and  do  likewise. 

11.  The  undersigned  took  up  two  young  mares,  four  or  five  yean 


SENTENCES  —  CLEARNESS.  103 

old,  a  dark  iron-gray,  one  had  a  wart  an  the  right  side  of  his  head, 
eight  miles  north  of  Altoona. 

12.  He  merely  asks  leave  to  come  and  play  a  little  solo,  on  the 
bagpipes,  of  his  own  composing. 

13.  A  man  with  one  eye  named  Robert  Welch. 

14.  Lost  by  a  poor  lad  tied  up  in  a  brown  paper  with  a  white 
string  a  German  flute  with  an  overcoat  and  several  other  articles  of 
wearing  apparel. 

15.  Nature  tells  me,  I  am  the  image  of  God,  as  well  as  Scripture. 

16.  I  lived  in  a  small  house  which  for  a  pleasant  back  opening  Sir 
Matthew  Hale  had  a  mind  to ;  but  he  caused  a  stranger,  that  he 
might  not  be  suspected  to  be  the  man,  to  know  of  me  whether  I  were 
willing  to  part  with  it  before  he  would  meddle  with  it. 

17.  The  thirty  years,  from  the  year  1672  to  his  death,  in  which  he 
acted  so  great  a  part,  carry  in  them  many  amazing  steps  of  a  glori- 
ous and  distinguishing  Providence. 

18.  Though  I  can't  say  I  ever  actually  saw  a  ghost  in  my  life,  yet 
I  am  certain  I  should  know  one  if  I  saw  him,  better  than  that 
comes  to. 

19.  The  transition  is  commonly  made  with  ease  from  these  to  the 
higher  and  more  important  duties  of  life. 

20.  Passengers  are  requested  to  purchase  tickets  before  entering 
the  cars  at  the  company's  office. 

21.  The  motion  of  the  pendulum  is  repeated  in  the  vibration  of 
atoms  of  ether,  not  recognizable  by  the  senses. 

22.  The  author's  object  is  to  represent  for  his  own  pleasure  the 
things  witnessed,  in  as  vivid  and  correct  a  manner  as  possible. 

23.  I  recommend  to  you  to  take  yourself  back,  and  be  talked  to 
presently,  you  fool,  while  there  's  time  to  retreat. 

24.  When  at  last  we  got  into  town,  the  people  came  out  to  their 
doors,  all  aslant  and  with  streaming  hair,  making  a  wonder  of  the 
mail  that  had  come  through  on  such  a  night. 

25.  A  child  was  run  over  by  a  heavy  wagon,  four  years  old,  wear- 
ing a  short  pink  dress,  and  bronze  boots,  whose  parents  are  not  yet 
found. 

26.  I  would  like  the  congregation  to  be  seated,  as  I  wish  to  say  a 
few  words,  before  I  begin. 

27.  They  laid  the  three  peacefully  to  rest  in  the  little  shaded 
church-yard  beneath  the  trees,  under  whose  shadow  they  had  chatted 
with  those  now  surviving  a  thousand  times. 

28.  He  by  no  means  despaired  of  seeing  her  come  out  of  the  cloud 
which  now  covered  her  with  a  meek  and  grateful  heart. 


104  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

29.  Banks  of  sea-weed  were  piled  up  around  these  huts,  kept  down 
from  the  power  of  the  wind  by  large  stones  laid  on  the  top,  to  ex- 
clude the  cold  and  snow  of  winter. 

30.  I  cannot  think  of  leaving  you  without  distress. 

31.  He  felt  himself  more  unworthy  every  day  of  such  a  privilege 
as  life  seemed  to  him  to  be  passed  in  the  intimate  society  of  such  a 
woman. 

32.  Unlimited  authority  was  given  to  the  female  dominion,  for 
everything  that  might  be  appropriated  to  their  position,  and  consist- 
ent with  their  known  principles  of  domestic  life,  in  the  arrangements 
for  the  important  event. 

33.  Among  the  first  arrivals  was  Mr.  Derby,  now  so  loved  by  every 
one,  who  was  to  officiate  on  the  occasion. 

34.  They  present  an  attractive,  consistent,  and  amiable  example 
in  the  community,  of  the  things  which  are  pure,  lovely,  and  of  good 
report. 

35.  There  was  a  little  church  mission  a  few  miles  from  the  fort, 
in  the  country,  maintained  by  the  English  Society. 

8.  Squinting  Construction. 

In  connection  with  these  examples  it  is  well  to  notice  what  the 
French  call  a  '*  squinting  "  construction.  By  this  is  meant  a  word, 
or  a  grammatical  expression,  thrown  into  the  middle  of  a  sentence, 
in  such  a  place  that  it  looks  both  ways,  so  to  speak ;  that  is,  it  can 
be  connected  in  meaning  either  with  what  goes  before,  or  with  what 
follows.     This  is  a  very  common  source  of  ambiguity. 

"  When  I  hear  a  pei"son  use  a  queer  expression,  or  pronounce  a  name  in  reading 
differently  from  his  neighbors,  it  always  goes  down,  in  my  estimate  of  him,  with  a 
ruinous  sign  before  it." — Alford.  Here  the  words  "in  reading"  look  two  ways.  They 
may  be  construed  eitl:  "r  with  those  which  precede,  or  with  those  which  follow.  We  may 
understand  the  authoi  as  saying,  either  "  pronounce  a  name  in  reading,"  or  "  in  read- 
ing differently  from  his  neighbors."  The  proper  arrangement  would  be:  "When  I 
hear  a  person  use  a  queer  expression,  or,  in  reading,  pronounce  a  name  differently 
from  his  neighbors,"  Ac. 

"Though  some  of  the  European  rulers  maybe  km&\iiB,  when  spoken  of  altogether, 
they  may  be  correctly  classified  under  the  denomination  'kings.'"  —  Alford.  This 
may  be  understood  to  mean  that  "  some  of  the  European  rulers  may  be  females  when 
spoken  of  altogether."  What  the  author  really  meant  may  be  expresaed  by  trans- 
posing the  words  italicized  and  putting  them  immediately  after  "  they  may."  Thus : 
"  Though  some  of  the  European  rulera  may  be  females,  they  may,  when  spoken  of 
altogether,  be  correctly  classified  under  the  denomination  '  kings.'  " 

"  Are  these  designs,  which  any  man,  who  is  born  a  Briton,  «»  any  circumstances^ 
ought  to  be  ashamed  to  avow  ? "  The  words  in  italics  squint.  They  may  look  back 
to  "born,"  «*r  forward  to  "ashamed."    The  sentence  may  mean  a  "man  who  In  any 


SENTENCES  —  CLEARNESS.        105 

circumstances  is  born  a  Briton,"  or  that  he  "  ought  not  in  any  circumstances  to  bo 
ashamed."  The  words  should  be  arranged  thus :  "  Are  these  designs,  which  any  man, 
who  is  born  a  Briton,  ought  in  any  circumstances  to  be  ashamed  to  avow  ?  " 

The  Arrangement  may  be  Faulty  without  being  Ambiguous.  —  In 
many  instances  of  faulty  arrangement,  such  as  those  which  have 
been  quoted,  there  is  perhaps  no  real  ambiguity.  The  meaning 
which  the  construction  suggests  is  so  thoroughly  absurd,  that  we 
see  at  once  that  the  author  must  have  meant  something  else.  The 
ejffect  of  the  bad  construction,  therefore,  is  not  so  much  to  make  the 
sentence  ambiguous,  as  to  make  it  obscure.  Obscurity,  however,  is 
a  fault  quite  as  much  as  ambiguity. 

General  Rule. — The  writer  should  never  require  of  the 
reader,  in  order  to  an  understanding  of  the  meaning,  any- 
greater  degree  of  attention  than  is  absolutely  necessary. 

The  Reason. — Whatever  attention  we  are  obliged  to  give  to  the 
words,  in  order  to  take  in  their  meaning,  is  so  much  deducted  from 
the  force  of  the  sentiments. 

Quintilian's  Rule.  —  "Care  should  be  taken,"  says  Quin- 
tilian,  "not  that  the  hearer  may  understand,  l)ut  that  he 
miist  understand,  whether  he  will  or  not."  . 

Language  a  Transparent  Medium.  —  Language  has  been  well  com- 
pared to  air,  glass,  water,  or  other  transparent  medium,  through 
which  material  objects  are  viewed  "If,"  says  Campbell,  "the 
medium  through  which  we  look  at  any  object  is  perfectly  trans- 
parent, our  whole  attention  is  fixed  on  the  object;  we  are  scarcely 
sensible  that  there  is  a  medium  which  intervenes,  and  we  can  hardly 
be  said  to  perceive  it.  But  if  there  is  any  flaw  in  the  medium,  if 
we  see  through  it  but  dimly,  if  the  object  is  imperfectly  represented, 
or  if  we  know  it  to  be  misrepresented,  our  attention  is  immediately 
.  taken  off  the  object  to  the  medium.  We  are  then  anxious  to  dis- 
cover the  cause,  either  of  the  dim  and  confused  representation,  or 
of  the  misrepresentation,  of  things  which  it  exhibits,  that  so  the 
defect  in  vision  may  be  supplied  by  judgment.  The  case  of  lan- 
guage is  precisely  similar.  A  discourse,  then,  excels  in  perspicuity 
when  the  subject  engrosses  the  attention  of  the  hearer,  and  the 
language  is  so  little  minded  by  him,  that  he  can  scarcely  be  said  to 
be  conscious  it  is  through  this  medium  he  sees  into  the  speaker's 
thoughts." 
10 


106  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETOKIC. 

JExatnple.    In  the  following  passage  from  Browning,  it  is  impossible  to  detep 
mine  from  the  sentence  itself,  whether  it  was  the  "  chief"  or  the  "  boy  "  who  fell  dead; 

"  You  're  wounded !  "  —  "  Nay,"  his  soldier-pride 

Touched  to  the  quick,  he  said, 
"  I  'm  killed,  sire,"  and  his  chief  beside 

The  smiling  boy  fell  dead. 


Examples  for  Practice. 

[The  student  is  expected  to  point  out  the  squinting  clause  in  each  of  the  following 
sentences,  and  to  reconstruct  the  sentences  so  as  to  make  them  free  from  this  fault.] 

1.  The  poor  little  beggar  longed  for  some  fruit,  and  after  search- 
ing from  one  end  of  the  market  to  the  other,  for  a  penny,  at  length, 
bought  an  apple. 

2.  Substances  which  have  been  innocuous,  through  the  winter 
months,  become  fruitful  in  insalutary  influences. 

3.  This  part  of  our  good  fame  in  the  olden  time  was  forfeited  by 
the  negligence  of  the  authorities. 

4.  Yet  we  fancy  that  Franklin,  the  philosopher,  in  small  things  as 
well  as  great,  rejoiced  in  his  heart  when  house-cleaning  day  came. 

5.  The  wild  fellow  in  Pretonius,  who  escaped  upon  a  broken 
table  from  the  furies  of  a  shipwreck,  as  he  was  sunning  himself 
upon  the  rocky  shore,  espied  a  man  rolled  upon  his  floating  bed  of 
waves. 

6.  He  [Gibbon]  incurred  the  imputation  of  avarice,  while  he  was, 
in  fact,  exceedingly  generous,  simply  by  his  ignorance  of  the  pur- 
chasing power  of  money. 

7.  They  arose,  to  a  degree,  comforted  and  tranquil. 

8.  The  wreck  of  his  vessel  upon  the  sand-bar  remained,  in  all  those 
succeeding  years,  a  monument  of  his  departure  in  the  midst  of  the 
sea. 

9.  They  came  together  to  good  Dr.  Bemis,  to  off"er  themselves,  as 
they  said,  to  sign  their  shipping-papers  with  the  Lord. 

10.  When  the  morning  came  and  their  breakfast  was  over,  to  their 
surprise,  Mr.  Dalton's  carriage  stood  before  the  door. 

11.  Any  one  whom  he  considered  in  all  things  subject  to  his  abso- 
lute command. 

12.  Mr.  Derby  caught  his  opportunity,  as  Colonel  Brenton  finished 
his  last  appeal,  to  open  to  him  the  whole  provision  of  grace  and 
forgiveness. 

13.  "It  shames  man  not  to  feel  man's  human  fear." — Lord 
Lytton't  King  Arthur. 


SENTENCES  —  CLEARNESS.  107 

14.  This  monument  was  erected  to  the  memory  of  John  Smith,  who 
was  shot,  as  a  mark  of  affection  by  his  brother. 

15.  Tell  him,  if  he  is  in  the  parlor,  I  do  not  care  to  see  him. 

16.  Say  to  him,  if  he  is  in  the  wrong,  he  should  retrace  his  steps. 

4.  Use  of  the  Pronouns. 

Ambiguity  and  obscurity  are  often  produced  by  carelessness  in  the 
use  of  the  Pronouns.  "  When  a  man  gets  to  his  Us"  says  Cobbett,  "1 
tremble  for  him."  The  skill  with  which  a  writer  deals  with  the  pro- 
nouns and  other  small  connecting  words  is  the  best  evidence  of  the 
eitent  to  which  he  has  attained  a  mastery  of  the  art  of  composition. 

Personal  Pronouns.  —  When  two  or  more  masculine  nouns  occur  in 
the  same  sentence,  the  use  of  "  he  "  often  becomes  ambiguous.  To 
avoid  this  ambiguity,  some  other  form  must  be  given  to  the  expres- 
sion, or,  instead  of  using  the  pronoun,  we  must  repeat  the  noun. 

"  The  lad  cannot  leave  his  father,  for  if  he  should  leave  his  father,  his  father  would 
die." — Gen.  44:  22.  A  less  skilful  writer  would  have  said,  "if  he  should  leave  his 
father,  he  would  die,"  leaving  it  uncertain  whether  it  was  the  father  or  the  son  that 
would  die. 

Hallam,  in  his  Literature  of  Modern  Europe,  says,  "  No  one  as  yet  had  exhibited  the 
structure  of  the  human  kidneys,  Vesalius  having  examined  titem  only  in  dogs,"  that 
is,  having  examined  human  kidneys  in  dogs !  Read,  "  Vesalius  having  examined  the 
kidneys  of  dogs  only." 

In  a  memoir  of  John  Leyden,  it  is  said,  "The  intellectual  qualities  of  the  youth  were 
superior  to  those  of  his  raiment,"  that  is,  superior  to  the  intellectual  qualities  of  his 
raiment !  The  writer  meant  probably  that  the  qualities  of  the  youth's  intellect  were 
superior  to  those  of  his  raiment. 

Dean  Alford,  in  his  "Plea  for  the  Queen's  English,"  has  this  sentence:  "Two  other 
words  occur  to  me  which  are  very  commonly  mangled  by  our  clergy.  One  of  these 
[words,  or  clergy  ?]  is  '  covetous,'  and  its  substantive  '  covetousness.'  I  hope  some  who 
read  these  lines,  will  be  induced  to  leave  off  pronouncing  tliem  [lines,  clergy,  or  words?] 
'covetious'  and  'covetiousness.'  I  can  assure  them  [lines,  readers,  clergy,  or  words?] 
that  when  they  [lines,  readers,  clergy,  or  words?]  do  thus  call  them  [lines,  readers, 
clergy,  or  words?],  one  at  least  of  their  [?]  hearers  has  his  appreciation  of  their  [^] 
teaching  disturbed."  Mr.  Moon  has  shown  mathematically  that  this  sentence  is  capable 
of  ten  thousand  two  huntfred  and  forty  different  meanings ! 

"  Men  look  with  an  evil  ej'e  upon  the  good  that  is  in  others  ;  and  think  that  their 
[others,  or  men?]  reputation  obscures  them  [?],  and  their  [?]  commendable  qualities 
stand  in  their  [?  ]  light ;  and  therefore  they  [?  ]  do  what  they  [?  ]  can  to  cast  a  cloud 
over  them  [?  ],  that  the  bright  shining  of  their  [?  ]  virtuea  may  not  obscure  them  [?  ]." 
Tillotson.  Here  are  no  less  than  four  words,  "men,"  "others,"  "qualities,"  and 
"  virtues,"  to  any  one  of  which  the  last  "  them  "  may  refer.  The  other  pronouns  may 
refer  severally  to  three  or  to  two  words,  so  that  the  sentence  becomes  a  perfect  jumble. 
By  changing  "  others  "  to  the  singular,  the  pronouns  will  at  once  adjust  themselves  so 
that  the  meaning  of  th«  author  will  be  perfectly  clear.    "  Men  look  with  evil  eye  upon 


108  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

the  good  that  is  in  another;  and  think  that  his  reputation  obscures  them,  his  com- 
mendable qualities  stand  in  their  light;  and  therefore  they  do  what  they  can  to  cast 
a  cloud  over  him,  that  the  bright  shiuing  of /as  virtues  may  not  obscure  them." 

How  to  avoid  Embarrassment. — A  writer  who  becomes  thus  em- 
barrassed in  the  use  of  the  pronouns,  in  consequence  of  having  to 
refer  back  to  two  different  objects,  or  classes  of  objects,  will  almost 
always  be  able  to  extricate  himself  from  the  difficulty  by  thus 
changing  the  construction  so  as  to  make  one  object  or  class  of 
objects  singular  and  the  other  plural.* 

Relative  Pronouns.  —  The  Relative  Pronouns  are  used  inaccurately 
oftener  even  than  the  Personal  Pronouns. 

"Many,"  says  Swift,  "act  so  directly  contrary  to  this  method,  that,  from  a  habit 
of  saving  time  and  paper,  which  they  acquired  at  the  University,  they  write  in  so 
diminutive  a  manner,  that  they  can  hardly  read  what  they  have  written."  Swift 
does  not  mean  that  they  had  acquired  time  and  paper  at  the  University,  but  that 
they  had  acquired  this  habit  there.  The  sentence  then  should  have  been  :  "  From  a 
habit  which  they  had  acquired  at  the  University,  of  saving  time  and  paper,  they 
write  in  so  diminutive  a  manner." 

"Thus  I  have  fairly  given  you  my  own  opinion,  as  well  as  that  of  a  great  majority 
of  both  houses  here,  relating  to  this  weighty  affair ;  upon  which  I  am  confident  you 
may  securely  reckon."  —  Swift.  Here,  according  to  the  construction,  the  person 
addressed  may  securely  reckon  upon  this  weighty  affair.  But  as  that  would  make 
nonsense,  we  are  led  to  conjecture  that  the  author  meant  his  friend  to  reckon  upon  a 
majority  of  both  houses.  If  so,  the  sentence  sliould  read:  "Thus  I  have  fairly  given 
you  my  own  opinion  relating  to  this  weighty  affair,  as  well  as  that  of  a  great  major- 
ity of  both  houses  here ;  upon  which  I  am  confident  you  may  securely  reckon." 

*  Burton  gives  a  capital  story  of  Billy  Williams,  a  comic  actor,  which  is  a  good 
illustration  of  the  i)oint  now  under  consideration.  Williams  is  represented  as  telling 
his  experience  in  riding  a  horse  belonging  to  Ilamblin,  the  manager. 

"  So  down  I  goes  to  the  stable  with  Tom  Flynn,  and  told  the  man  to  put  the  saddle 
on  him." 

"On  Tom  Flynn?" 

"  No,  on  the  horse.     So,  after  talking  with  Tom  Flynn  awhile,  I  mounted  him." 

"  What !  mounted  Tom  Flynn  ?  " 

"  No !  the  horse ;  and  thcii  I  shook  hands  with  him  and  rode  off." 

"Shook  hands  with  the  horse.  Billy?  " 

"  No,  with  Tom  Flynn  ;  and  then  I  rodo  off  up  the  Bowery,  and  who  shotild  I  meet 
In  front  of  the  Bowery  Theatre  but  Tom  Ilamblin;  so  I  got  off  and  told  the  boy  to 
hold  him  by  the  head." 

"What!  hold  Ilamblin  by  the  head?  " 

"  No,  the  horse ;  and  then  we  went  and  had  a  drink  together." 

"  What !  you  and  the  horse  ?  " 

"  No,  me  and  Ilamblin ;  and  after  that  I  mounted  him  again,  and  went  out  of 
town." 

"  What !  mounted  Hamblin  again  ?  " 

"  No,  the  horse ;  and  when  I  got  tO  Burnham,  who  should  be  there  but  Tom  Flynn, 
—  he  'd  tiiken  another  horse  and  rode  out  ahead  of  mo ;  so  I  told  the  hostler  to  tit 
him  up." 

"Tie  Tom  Flynn  Tip?" 

"  No,  the  horse ;  and  we  had  a  drink  there." 

"  What !  you  and  the  horse  ?  " 

"  No,  me  and  Tom  Flynn  !  " 

Finding  his  auditors  by  this  time  in  ahorsi'  laugh,  Billy  wound  up  with  — r 

"Now,  look  hero,  —  every  time  I  say  hoi-se,  you  say  Ilamblin,  and  every  time  I  saj 
Hamblin,  you  say  hors*.    I  '11  be  hanged  if  I  tell  you  any  more  about  it." 


SENTENCES  —  CLEARNESS.  109 

*  Ifo  nowhere  meet  with  a  more  glorioas  and  pleasing  show  in  nature,  than  what 
appwwfn  In  the  heavens  at  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun,  which  [sun,  rising  and 
settintj',  yt  show?]  is  wholly  made  up  of  those  different  stains  of  light,  that  show 
themselves  in  clouds  of  a  different  situation."  —  Addison.  This  sentence  is  not  per- 
haps absolutely  ambiguous,  for  after  some  study  we  find  that^the  "which"  must 
ralate  to  "  show."  But  the  meaning  is  at  least  made  obscure  by  the  wide  sepai-ation 
of  the  relative  from  its  antecedent,  and  by  the  introduction  of  other  nouns  between  the 
relative  and  its  antecedent.  This  obscurity  might  have  been  avoided,  and  the  mean- 
ing rendered  entirely  perspicuous  by  arranging  the  words  thus :  "  We  nowhere  meet 
with  a  more  glorious  and  pleasing  show  in  nature,  than  that  which  appears  in  the 
heavens  at  the  rising  and  setting  of  the  sun,  and  which  is  wholly  made  up  of  those 
different  stains  of  light,"  Ac.  Here  the  second  "  which  "  is  connected  by  the  con- 
junction with  the  first  "  which,"  and  both  refer  back  directly  to  "  show,"  and  cannot 
refer  to  anything  else. 

"  It  is  folly  to  pretend  to  arm  ourselves  against  the  accidents  of  life,  by  heaping  up 
treasures  which  nothing  can  protect  us  against,  but  the  good  providence  of  our  Heav- 
enly Father."  —  Sfierlock.  That  is,  nothing  can  protect  us  against  treasures!  The 
author  meant:  "It  is  folly  to  pretend,  by  heaping  up  treasures,  to  arm  ourselves 
against  the  accidents  of  life,  which  nothing  can  protect  us  against,  but  the  good 
providence  of  our  Heavenly  Father." 


Examples  for  Practice. 

[The  student  is  expected  to  criticize  and  amend  the  following  sentences,  in  reference 
to  the  improper  use  of  the  pronouns.] 

1.  Holland,  a  country  wholly  rescued  from  the  sea,  which  pos- 
sesses very  little  natural  advantages,  has  been  converted  into  one 
yast  garden  by  the  industry  of  its  inhabitants. 

2.  Mr.  French  needs  a  surgeon,  who  has  broken  his  arm. 

3.  The  figs  were  in  small  wooden  boxes,  which  we  ate. 

4.  He  needs  no  spectacles,  that  cannot  see ;  nor  boots,  that  cannot 
walk. 

5.  He  must  endure  the  follies  of  others,  who  will  have  their  kind- 
ness. 

6.  Found,  a  white -handled  knife,  by  a  child,  that  has  a  broken 
back. 

7.  To  rent,  a  house  containing  ten  rooms,  located  in  a  pleasant 
village,  which  has  a  fine  bay-window  in  front. 

8.  John  at  last  found  the  key,  locked  the  door,  and  went  off,  put- 
ting it  in  his  pocket. 

9.  The  farmer  went  to  his  neighbor  and  told  him  that  his  cattle 
were  in  his  fields. 

10.  Robert  promised  his  father  that  he  would  pay  his  debts. 

11.  They  were  persons  of  very  moderate  intellects  even  before  they 
were  impaired  by  their  passions. 

10*  8 


110  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETOEIC. 

12.  I  shall  be  happy  if  I  can  contribute  to  your  and  my  country's 
glory. 

13.  Mrs.  Jones  said  to  her  daughter  that  perhaps  she  might  go  to 
the  city  for  the  zephyr  she  needed  to  finish  the  cushion  for  her  sister's 
Christmas  present. 

14.  There  is  a  lane  at  the  end  of  the  town,  where  the  young  vicar 
from  his  study  can  see  the  young  ladies  passing  on  their  way  to  the 
cottage  of  their  pensioner,  which  is  muddy  and  affords  an  excuse  for 
joining  them  as  they  come  back. 

16.  He  is  like  a  beast  of  prey,  that  is  void  of  compassion. 

16.  His  son,  a  youth  of  thirteen,  was  permitted  to  stay  in  prison 
with  his  father,  who  beholding  his  only  surviving  parent  loaded  with 
irons  was  overwhelmed  with  grief. 

17.  The  captain  of  the  ship  swam  ashore,  and  so  did  the  cook. 
She  was  insured  for  fifteen  thousand  dollars,  and  was  heavily  loaded 
with  iron. 

18.  During  the  procession,  a  child  was  run  over,  wearing  a  short 
red  dress,  which  never  spoke  afterwards. 

19.  The  mad  dog  bit  a  horse  on  the  leg,  which  has  since  died. 

20.  When  the  travellers  complained  of  the  ferocity  of  his  dogs,  he 
said  they  were  ill-bred  curs. 

21.  Mary  asked  her  mother  if  she  might  go  with  her,  as  she  was 
sure  she  was  going  to  buy  something  for  her. 

22.  Did  you  take  that  book  to  the  library,  which  I  loaned  you  ? 

23.  Life  with  him  has  ended  in  a  sad  mistake  which  began  with 
such  bright  prospects. 

-     24.  The  day  has  come  of  great  rejoicing   to   many  glad   hearts 
which  we  have  looked  for  so  long. 

25.  The  body  was  dragged  ashore,  and  she  identified  the  remains, 
which  were  much  decomposed,  by  the  clothing. 

26.  Mr.  Greeley  denied  that  he  had  ever  used  profane  language  in 
an  interview  which  a  certain  newspaper  reporter  had  put  into  his 
mouth. 

27.  When  Abraham  sat  at  his  tent-door,  according  to  his  custom, 
waiting  to  entertain  strangers,  he  espied  an  old  man  stooping  and 
leaning  on  his  statf,  weary  with  age  and  travel,  coming  toward  him, 
who  was  a  hundred  years  of  age. 

28.  There  is  a  touching  tenderness  in  a  mother's  tears,  when  they 
fall  upon  the  face  of  her  dying  babe,  which  no  eye  can  behold  witk- 
out  emotion. 

29.  That  is  a  better  statement  of  the  case  than  yours. 


SENTENCES — CLEARNESS.  Ill 

80.  The  teacher  should  be  careful  to  find  no  fault  with  the  super- 
intendent in  the  hearing  of  the  class,  as  this  would  weaken  his  influ- 
ence. 

31.  In  memory  of  the  Rey.  Gilbert  Tennent,  the  first  pastor  of 
this  church,  whose  evangelical  labors  were  abundantly  blessed  in 
the  ingathering  of  souls. 

32.  Every  passenger  is  obliged  to  show  their  ticket  before  enter- 
ing the  car. 

33.  Gloried  in  the  perfect  independence  of  his  control. 

34.  Dr.  Bemis  was  the  rector  of  the  one  Episcopal  church  in  that 
town,  to  which  this  family  had  always  belonged. 

35.  I  don't  think  you  can  do  good  to  anybody,  if  you  set  out  with 
telling  them  how  worthless  and  bad  they  are. 

36.  With  her  beloved  daughter  she  kept  up  the  most  intimate  fel- 
lowship of  feeling  and  conversation,  though  she  tried  to  hide  from 
her  all  knowledge  of  her  father's  intense  cruelty  to  her. 

37.  A  refrigerator  car  is  running  on  the  New  Jersey  railroad  for 
bringing  fresh  meat  from  Chicago. 

38.  Mr.  Smith  uttered  no  sentiment  that  might  not  have  been 
uttered  on  the  Sabbath,  with  strict  propriety,  or  even  in  a  place  of 
worship. 

39.  Intemperance  is  the  great  moral  evil  at  which  it  is  aimed,  by 
the  concession  of  all  mankind. 

40.  Mary  asked  her  sister  if  she  would  bring  her  work-basket 
along,  as  she  wished  to  make  something  for  her  mother. 

41.  Mr.  Jones  has  just  received  a  letter  from  Mr.  Smith,  saying 
that  he  is  expected  to  deliver  the  next  annual  address. 

Sammary  of  Rule  I.  —  The  examples  which  have  now  been  cited 
and  commented  on  are  sufficient  to  explain  and  enforce  the  first  Rule 
for  the  construction  of  the  sentence,  namely,  that  the  words  should 
be  so  arranged  that  the  meaning  cannot  he  mistaken. 

Three  Things  to  be  observed.  —  In  carrying  out  this  Rule,  we  must, 
in  particular,  see  — 

1.  That  every  adverb  and  adverbial  clause  is  made  to  adhere 
closely  to  the  word  which  it  is  intended  to  qualify ; 

2.  That  where  a  circumstance  is  thrown  in,  it  shall  not  hang 
loosely  in  the  midst  of  a  period,  but  be  so  placed  as  by  its  position 
to  show  clearly  to  which  member  of  the  sentence  it  belongs;  and 

3.  That  every  pronoun  shall  be  so  placed  as  to  suggest  instantly 
to  the  mind  of  the  reader  the  noun  referred  to. 


112  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC, 


KULE    1 1. -EMPHASIS. 

The  Words  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  give  a  conspicuous 
position  to  the  two  Main  Parts  of  the  Sentence,  namely,  the 
Principal  Subject  and  the  Principal  Predicate. 

Two  Things  of  Prime  Importance.  —  It  is  of  prime  im- 
portance to  the  reader  or  the  hearer  to  know  clearly  and 
without  effort,  first,  what  the  principal  subject  of  discourse 
in  the  sentence  is,  and  secondly,  what  is  the  principal  thing 
intended  to  be  said  of  that  subject.  All  the  other  par^s  of 
the  sentence  are  subsidiary  to  these  two,  and  should  be  so 
arranged  that  these  should  strike  at  once  both  the  eye  and 
the  ear. 

1.  The  Principal  Subject. 

The  Principal  Subject  is  that  about  which  mainly  the  writer 
intends  to  say  something.  The  Principal  Subject,  as  the  term  is 
here  used,  is  not  necessarily  the  Grammatical  Subject. 

"Nature,  with  most  beneficent  intention,  conciliates  and  forms  the  mind  of  man  to 
his  condition."  The  context  to  this  sentence  shows  that  the  author  wished  to  say 
something,  not  about  Nature,  but  about  the  mind  of  man.  The  "  mind  of  man," 
therefore,  is  really  the  principal  subject  of  discourse,  though  grammatically  it  is  the 
object  of  the  verbs  "  conciliates  "  and  "  forms."  A  different  construction  of  the  sen- 
tence will  show  this.  "  The  mind  of  man  is,  by  Nature's  beneficent  intention,  con- 
ciliated and  formed  to  his  condition." 

"  The  praise  of  judgment  Virgil  has  justly  contested  with  him  [Homer],  but  his 
invention  remains  unrivalled."  —  Pope.  Here  the  two  qualities  about  which  Pope 
wishes  to  make  an  assertion  are  judgment  and  invention.  These  then  are  the  real 
subjects,  though  "judgment,"  in  the  first  member  of  the  sentence,  is  grammatically 
in  the  objective  case. 

Ordinarily,  however,  the  grammatical  subject  and  the  principal 
subject  are  the  same. 

Examples  are  found  in  the  following  sentences : 

"  Learning  taketh  away  the  wildness,  barbarism,  and  fierceness  of  men's  minds." 
"  The  pleasures  of  the  imagination,  taken  in  their  full  extent,  are  not  so  gross  as 
those  of  sense,  nor  so  refined  as  those  of  the  understanding." 
"  Our  sight  is  the  most  perfect  and  the  most  delightful  of  all  our  senses." 

Rule.  —  The  Principal  Subject,  whether  grammatically 
in  the  nominative  or  in  the  objective  case,  should  have  a 


SENTENCES  —  EMPHASIS.  113 

conspicuous  position  in  the  sentence,  and  especially  should 
stand  clear  and  disentangled  from  other  words  that  might 
clog  it. 

Most  commonly  and  naturally  the  place  for  this  subject  is  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sentence,  as  in  the  three  sentences  last  quoted. 
But  there  may  be  cases  in  which  the  sense  is  rendered  more  striking 
by  putting  the  subject  at  the  end. 

Example  of  Inversion,  "On  whatever  side  we  contemplate  Homer, 
what  principally  strikes  us  is  his  wonderful  invention."  —  Pope.  The 
genius  of  our  language  does  not  greatly  facilitate  this  kind  of  inver- 
sion. Still  it  may  be  practised  occasionally,  and  sometimes  with 
striking  effect,  as  in  the  example  just  quoted. 

Inversion  produced  by  There  and  It.  — The  word  <' there,"  used  as 
a  mere  expletive,  is  one  of  the  contrivances  we  have  for  producing 
this  inversion.  •'  There  was  a  man  sent  of  God,  whose  name  was 
John."  "It"  is.used  indefinitely  for  a  similar  purpose.  *' It  was 
Brutus  that  gave  the  fatal  blow." 

^n  Example.  — "  The  state  was  made,  under  pretence  of  serving  it,  in  reality  the 
prize  of  their  contention,  to  each  of  these  opposite  parties,  who  professed  in  specious 
terms,  the  one  a  preference  for  moderate  aristocracy,  the  other  a  desire  of  admitting 
the  people  at  large  to  an  equality  of  civil  privileges."  Here,  the  author  means  to  make 
an  assertion  about  the  conduct  of  the  "  opposite  parties."  Yet  these  words,  consti- 
tuting the  real  subject,  are  so  placed  near  the  centre  of  the  sentence,  and  so  entangled 
and  mixed  up  with  other  words,  that  the  meaning  is  obscured.  The  sentence,  there- 
fore, should  be  remodelled,  so  as  to  give  the  subject  a  conspicuous  position.  This  is 
done  by  Whately,  as  follows :  "  The  two  opposite  parties,  who  professed  in  specious 
terms,  the  one  a  preference  for  moderate  aristocracy,  the  other  a  desire  of  admitting 
the  people  at  large  to  an  equality  of  civil  privileges,  made  the  state,  which  they  pre- 
tended to  serve,  in  reality  the  prize  of  their  contention."  Here  the  true  subject  is  at 
once  brought  before  the  mind  of  the  reader,  and  the  main  assertion  becomes  clear 
and  distinct,  notwithstanding  the  numerous  subsidiary  ideas  that  are  connected  with 
it.  The  sentence,  even  in  its  amended  form,  is  open  to  criticism,  the  words  "  in  reality," 
towards  the  close,  being  capable  of  a  squinting  construction. 

"  It  is  not  without  a  degree  of  patient  attention,  greater  than  the  generality  are 
willing  to  bestow,  though  not  greater  than  the  object  deserves,  that  the  habit  can  be 
acquired  of  examining  and  judging  of  our  own  conduct  with  the  same  accuracy  and 
impartiality  as  that  of  another."  Hero  again  the  meaning  is  obscured  by  the  entangle- 
ment into  which  the  principal  subject  is  placed.  By  recasting  the  sentence,  so  as  to 
place  this  subject  at  the  beginning,  the  whole  meaning  is  cleared  up.  "7%«  hahit  of  ex- 
amining and  judging  of  our  own  conduct  with  the  same  impartiality  as  that  of  another, 
cannot  be  acquired  without  a  degree  of  patient  attention,  not  greater  indeed  than  the 
object  deserves,  but  greater  than  the  generality  are  willing  to  bestow." 

Disposal  of  Subsidiary  Matter.  —  In  order  to   give  the  principal 


114  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

subject  a  conspicuous  position,  it  is  not  always  necessary  to  place  it 
either  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  the  sentence.  Sometimes 
the  subsidiary  matter,  or  a  portion  of  it,  may  be  disposed  of  first, 
and  then  the  subject  come  in  with  good  eJBFect. 

The  Participial  Construction.  —  This  is  especially  the  case  in  what 
is  called  the  Participial  Construction. 

The  effect  of  the  participial  construction  is  to  keep  the  mind  in  suspense.  We  know 
that  the  subject  has  not  yet  been  announced,  and  therefore  are  just  as  ready  for  it  when 
it  does  come,  as  if  it  had  been  given  at  once.  The  advantage  in  this  construction  is 
that  a  multiplicity  of  cumbersome  but  necessary  details  may  be  disposed  of,  leaving  us 
thus  much  freer  to  proceed  from  the  main  subject  to  the  main  predicate. 

JSxample,  —  ^'Accustomed  to  a  land  at  home  where  every  height,  seen  dimly  in  the 
distance,  might  prove  a  cathedral  tower,  a  church  spire,  a  pilgrim's  oratory,  or  at  least 
a  wayside  cross,  Ihese  religious  explorers  must  often  have  strained  their  sight  in  order 
to  recognize  some  object  of  a  similar  character." 

Qualifying  Clauses  and  Adjuncts.  —  Clauses  and  adjuncts  which  man- 
ifestly qualify  the  main  subject  may  in  like  manner  sometimes  come 
in  before  it,  without  affecting  its  prominence. 

"  In  the  vacant  space  betwteen  Persia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Ethiopia,  the  Arabian  Penin- 
sula may  be  conceived  as  a  triangle  of  spacious  but  irregular  dimensions."  Here  the 
words  "  In  the  vacant  space  between  Persia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Ethiopia,"  are  an  ad- 
junct of  "  the  Arabian  Peninsula."  They  tell  where  that  Peninsula  is,  and  suggest 
thereby  the  reason  why  it  may  be  conceived  as  being  a  triangle. 

2.  The  Principal  Predicate. 

The  remarks  which  have  been  made  in  regard  to  the  principal  sub- 
ject of  the  sentence  will  apply  with  little  change  to  the  principal 
predicate.  The  natural  and  common  place  for  the  predicate  is  at  or 
near  the  end  of 'a  sentence,  as  that  for  the  subject  is  at  or  near  the 
beginning.  But  circumstances  may  make  an  entirely  different 
arrangement  preferable.  The  assertion  that  "  peacemakers  are 
blessed,"  is  rendered  more  emphatic  by  transposing  the  sentence, 
and  giving  the  predicate  first;  as,  ^^ Blessed  are  the  peacemakers." 
How  much  another  passage  of  Scripture  would  be  enfeebled,  were 
we  to  say,  "Diana  of  the  Ephesians  is  great,"  instead  of  saying, 
'•  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians." 

Place  for  the  Principal  Predicate.  —  No  definite  rule  can 
be  given,  prescribing  when  the  predicate  should  be  placed 
at  the  beginning,  when  it  should  be  placed  at  the  end,  or 
when  elsewhere.     It  requires,  in  each  case,  the  exercise  of 


SENTENCES  —  EMPHASIS.  115 

taste  and  judgment,  the  writer  ever  bearing  in  mind  which 
words  constitute  the  leading  subject  and  predicate,  and  so 
arranging  the  subordinate  matter  as  to  make  these  words 
prominent. 

Connection  with  Elocution.  —  The  words  constituting  the  principal 
predicate  are  the  ones  which  the  elocutionist  selects  for  his  empha- 
sis. Careless  writers  sometimes  content  themselves  with  marking 
these  emphatic  words  by  italics.  But  this  is  a  weak  device.  The 
sentence  ought,  if  possible,  to  be  so  arranged,  that  the  words  which 
the  sense  requires  to  be  emphatic  shall  be  just  those  which  the  voice 
of  a  good  reader  will  most  naturally  and  easily  select  for  emphasis. 

Absence  of  Italics  no  Proof  of  Good  Construction.  —  Some  writers, 
having  been  taught  that  the  frequent  use  of  italics  is  a  fault,  fancy 
that  they  avoid  the  fault  by  merely  omitting  to  use  italics,  instead 
of  so  constructing  their  sentences  that  italics  will  not  be  needed. 
This,  as  Whately  justly  observes,  is  like  attempting  to  remedy  the 
intricacies  of  a  road  by  removing  the  guide-posts!  The  proper 
remedy  is  to  straighten  the  road.  In  the  same  way,  writers  who 
introduce  long  and  perplexing  parentheses  try  to  avoid  censure  by 
using  commas  instead  of  the  usual  marks  of  parenthesis,  as  if  it 
were  any  help  to  a  lame  man  to  take  away  his  crutches. 

JExatnples.  —  "  He  that  tells  a  lie  is  not  sensible  how  great  a  task  he  undertakefl; 
for  he  must  be  forced  to  invent  twenty  more,  to  maintain  one."  Here,  in  the  latter 
branch  of  the  sentence,  the  principal  assertion  clearly  is  the  necessity  of  inventing 
twenty  more,  but  it  would  be  difficult  to  read  the  passage  so  as  to  make  this  the 
prominent  idea.  Arrange  the  words  thus:  "  For,  to  maintain  one  lie,  he  must  invent 
twenty  more,"  and  it  will  be  difficult  to  read  the  passage  without  making  these  words 
emphatic. 

"  That  our  elder  writers,  to  Jeremy  Taylor  inclusive,  quoted  to  excess,  it  would  be 
the  blindness  of  partiality  to  deny."  Here  the  main  assertion,  in  regard  to  the  elder 
writers,  is  their  habit  of  excessive  quotation.  But  it  would  be  difficult  to  read  it  so  as 
clearly  to  bring  out  this  meaning.  Arrange  it  thus:  "It  would  be  the  blindness  of 
partiality  to  deny,  that  our  elder  writers,  to  Jeremy  Taylor  inclusive,  quoted  to  excess." 
Now  the  principal  predicate  is  so  placed  that  it  would  be  difficult  for  a  reader  not  to 
make  it  emphatic. 

"  Every  attempt  to  dispense  with  axioms  has  proved  unsuccessful ;  somewhere  or 
other  in  the  process,  assumed  theorems  have  been  found."  In  the  latter  branch  of 
the  sentence,  the  most  important  word  is  "  assumed."  This  is  clearly  the  emphatie 
word,  and  the  emphasis  which  ought  to  be  placed  on  it  can  be  given  more  easily,  if 
this  word  is  put  either  at  the  beginning,  or  at  the  end,  of  the  clause,  thus :  ^^ Assumed 
theorems  have  been  found  somewhere  or  other  in  the  process,"  or,  "  Somewhere  or 
other  in  the  process  there  have  been  found  theorems  which  arc  assumed.'"'' 

The  Principal  Words  not  to  be  Entangled.  —  On  this  subject,  Blair 


116  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETOBIC. 

rqakes  the  following  remarks:  "In  whatever  part  of  the  sentence 
we  dispose  of  the  capital  words,  it  is  always  a  point  of  great  moment, 
that  these  capital  words  shall  stand  clear  and  disentangled  from  any 
other  words  that  would  clog  them.  Thus,  when  there  are  any  cir- 
cumstances of  time,  place,  or  other  limitations,  which  the  principal 
object  of  the  sentence  requires  to  have  connected  with  it,  we  must 
take  especial  care  to  dispose  of  them,  so  as  not  to  cloud  that  princi- 
pal object,  nor  to  bring  it  under  a  load  of  circumstances." 

Example  frotn  Shaftesbury.  —  Comparing  modern  poets  with  the  ancient, 
Shaftesbury  says :  "  If,  while  they  profess  only  to  please,  they  secretly  advise,  and 
give  instruction,  they  may  now,  perhaps,  as  well  as  formerly,  be  esteemed,  with  jus- 
tice, the  best  and  most  honorable  among  authors."  This  sentence  contains  a  great 
many  circumstances  and  adverbs,  necessary  to  qualify  the  meaning ;  only,  secretly,  as 
well,  perhaps,  now,  with  justice,  formerly ;  yet  these  are  placed  with  so  much  art,  as 
neither  to  embarrass  nor  weaken  the  sentence ;  while  that  which  is  the  capital  object 
in  it,  namely,  "Poets  being  justly  esteemed  the  best  and  most  honorable  among 
authors,"  comes  out  in  the  conclusion  clear  and  detached,  and  possesses  its  proper 
place.  See  what  would  have  been  the  effect  of  a  different  arrangement.  "If,  whilst 
they  profess  to  please  only,  they  advise  and  give  instruction  secretly,  they  may  be 
esteemed  the  best  and  most  honorable  among  authors,  with  justice,  perhaps,  now  as 
well  as  formerly." 

Summary  of  Eules  I,  and  II.  —  The  two  rules  or  principles  which 
thus  far  have  been  discussed  should  govern  us  in  the  construction 
of  every  sentence.  As  the  first  of  these  rules  has  for  its  object  to 
secure  Perspicuity,  so  the  second  has  for  its  object  to  secure  the 
proper  Emphasis.  The  former  makes  the  meaning  clear,  the  latter 
makes  it  forcible.  The  two  qualities  here  described  lie  at  the  founda- 
tion of  all  good  writing.  The  very  first  thing  which  a  writer  must 
do  is  so  to  arrange  his  words  as,  first  to  make  his  meaning  plain, 
and  secondly  to  give  his  meaning  all  the  force  of  which  it  is  capable. 
This  last  point  is  secured  in  any  given  sentence  by  attending  chiefly 
to  the  position  of  the  principal  subject  and  of  the  principal  predi- 
cate, and  by  so  placing  these  important  words  that  in  reading  we 
shall  naturally  and  easily  make  them  emphatic. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[The  following  sentences  are  to  be  reconstructed,  so  a«  to  give  a  more  conspicnouB 
position  either  to  the  principal  subject,  or  to  the  principal  predicate.] 

1.  We  put  out  the  lights,  and  hasten  to  our  own  more  secluded 
fireside,  glad  that  the  world  is  at  least  shut  out  from  here. 

2.  No  matter  in  what  season  we  view  nature,  we  are  always 
struck  with  her  unity  of  design. 


SENTENCES  —  EMPHASIS.  117 

8.  When  Carrini  discovered  that  the  earth  travels  in  a  much  wider 
orbit  than  Tycho  Brah6  had  supposed,  the  new  theory  had  become 
60  firmly  established,  that  while  it  was  proved  that  the  stars  were 
many  hundreds  of  millions  of  miles  farther  from  us,  astronomers 
still  held  to  the  new  order  of  things. 

4.  When  his  genius  had  once  warmed  itself  in  this  way,  it  would 
seem  that  it  had  attained  the  healthiness  natural  to  its  best  condi- 
tions, and  could  have  gone  on  forever,  increasing,  both  in  enjoy- 
ment and  in  power,  had  external  circumstances  been  favorable. 

5.  These,  we  may  observe,  commonly  content  themselves  with 
words  which  have  no  distinct  ideas  to  them,  though  in  other  matters, 
that  they  come  with  an  unbiassed  indiflFerency  to,  they  want  not 
abilities  to  talk  and  hear  reason,  where  they  have  no  secret  inclina- 
tion that  hinders  them  from  being  intractable  to  it. 

6.  To  subject  passengers  arriving  from  foreign  ports  to  unneces- 
sary inconvenience  is  very  undesirable,  while  it  is  very  necessary  to 
take  proper  measures  to  prevent  smuggling. 

7.  His  is  a  mind  that,  in  discerning  and  reflecting  whatever  odd 
or  amusing  things  occur  in  the  life  around  him,  occupies  itself  pre- 
eminently. 

8.  Surely  no  effort  can  be  made  which  will  not  be  fully  compen- 
sated by  the  possession  of  a  power,  which  will  ^ansform  the 
dreamer  into  a  benefactor. 

9.  Nevertheless,  that  the  empire  has  provinces  which  blend  some- 
thing of  foreign  genius  with  their  national  character,  on  her  every 
frontier,  is  of  the  greatness  of  France  one  of  the  elements. 

10.  As  a  method  for  putting  children  to  sleep,  claiming  that  it  is 
far  preferable  to  the  remedies  ordinarily  employed,  especially  those 
which  contain  opium  —  a  substance  whose  use  for  this  purpose  can 
scarcely  be  too  strongly  reprehended  —  certain  French  physicians 
recommend  the  use  of  bromide  of  potassium. 

11.  In  addition,  on  a  slip  of  paper  (and,  by  means  of  an  auto- 
graph apparatus,  any  number  of  copies  of  this  list  can  be  produced 
with  great  rapidity)  the  instrument  records  the  name  of  each  mem- 
ber and  how  he  voted. 

12.  Two  men  were  killed  last  evening  on  the  Camden  and  Amboy 
Railroad,  near  the  Fish-House  Station,  who  were  walking  on  the 
track,  and  were  stepping  off  to  get  out  of  the  way  of  one  train  while 
another  was  coming  up  in  another  direction  and  struck  them, 

13.  The  Paterson  people  think  that  it  is  the  Associated  Press  tele- 
grams from  that  city  that  it  has  no  police  force  that  is  bringing  them 
80  many  burglars  an-d  robbers  from  the  large  cities. 

11 


118  COMPOSITION    AND    EHETORIC. 


BULE    II  I. -UNITY. 

A  Sentence  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  maintain  Unity 
of  Thought. 

Numerous  Details.  —  This  Unity  is  not  incompatible  with 
including  in  the  sentence  a  great  number  and  variety  of 
particulars.  A  sentence  may  contain  a  dozen  different 
thoughts  or  ideas,  and  yet  these  may  all  be  so  subordinated 
to  the  one  governing  idea,  which  forms  the  basis  of  the 
sentence,  that  the  impression  on  the  mind  is  that  of  one 
undivided  whole. 

Illustration  from  House-building.  —  If  we  see,  lying  loosely  in  a 
field,  heaps  of  sand,  brick,  and  lime,  piles  of  beams,  boards,  stones, 
and  iron,  all  scattered  about  miscellaneously  here  and  there,  we 
have  a  picture  of  many  of  the  sentences,  so  called,  that  we  find  in 
authors.  When  again  those  scattered  materials  have  been  brought 
into  harmonious  and  orderly  arrangement,  under  the  hand  of  the 
architect  and  builder, — when  they  stand  before  us,  not  a  confused 
medley  of  rubbish,  but  a  compacted  and  commodious  house  for  the 
dwelling  of  man,  in  which  every  particle  of  sand  and  lime,  every 
brick  and  stone,  every  piece  of  wood  and  iron  has  its  place,  and 
serves  one  general  design, — we  have  a  picture  of  the  perfect  Period, 
as  it  comes  from  the  hand  of  the  master-builder. 

Danger  in  Long  Periods.  —  It  requires  special  skill  on  the  part  of 
a  writer  to  complete  one  of  these  complex  sentences,  without  some 
sacrifice  of  unity.  It  is  also  a  hazardous  experiment  upon  the 
patience  of  the  reader,  to  expect  him  to  follow  out  such  a  sentence 
to  its  completion,  without  some  flagging  of  the  attention.  A  writer 
who  deals  much  in  these  long,  complex  sentences,  is  apt  to  become 
heavy,  however  faultless  may  be  his  periods.  Often  such  sentences 
may  be  resolved  into  two  or  three  independent  sentences,  greatly  to 
the  relief  of  the  reader. 

"  The  ladders  were  now  applied,  and  mounted  by  several  men,  which  the  monkey 
observing,  and  finding  liimself  almost  encompassed,  and  not  being  able  to  make  speed 
enough  with  his  three  legs,  let  me  drop  on  a  ridge  tile,  and  made  his  escape."  —  Sioi/t. 
Change  into  two  sentences,  thus :  "  The  ladders  were  now  applied,  and  [they  were] 
mounted  by  several  men.  The  monkey,  observing  this,  and  finding  himself  almost 
encompassed,  and  not  being  able  to  make  speed  enough  with  his  three  legs,  let  me 
drop  on  a  ridge  tile,  and  made  Lis  escape." 


SENTENCES  —  UNITY.      -  119 

Macaulay's  Periods. — No  one  ever  understood  the  management  of 
sentences  better  than  Macaulay.  His  longest  and  most  complex  sen- 
tences are  thoroughly  periodic,  observing  strictly  the  laws  of  unity, 
and  they  are  always  relieved  by  a  succession  of  brief  sentences,  each 
usually  containing  a  single,  independent  assertion.  Take  the  fol- 
lowing example,  from  his  description  of  the  trial  of  Warren  Hastings : 

The  place  was  worthy  of  such  a  trial.  It  was  the  great  hall  of  William  Rufus  ;  the 
ball  which  had  resounded  with  the  inauguration  of  thirty  kings ;  the  hall  which  had 
witnessed  the  just  sentence  of  Bacon  and  tlie  just  absolution  of  Somers ;  the  hall  where 
the  eloquence  of  Strafford  had  for  a  moment  awed  and  melted  a  victorious  party 
inflamed  with  just  resentment ;  the  hall  where  Charles  had  confronted  the  High  Court 
of  Justice  with  the  placid  courage  which  has  half  redeemed  his  fame.  Neither  military 
nor  civil  pomp  was  wanting.  The  avenues  were  lined  with  grenadiers.  The  streets 
were  kept  clear  by  cavalry.  The  peers,  robed  in  gold  and  ermine,  were  marshalled  by 
the  heralds  under  Garter-King-at-Arms.  The  judges,  in  their  vestments  of  state, 
attended  to  give  advice  on  points  of  law. 

Some  of  the  subordinate  rules  to  be  observed  in  main- 
taining the  unity  of  a  sentence  are  the  following  :  * 

1.  Change  of  Subject. 
During  the   course   of  the  sentence,  let  the  subject  be 
changed  as  little  as  possible. 

There  is  usually,  in  every  sentence,  some  one  person  or  thing 
which  is  the  object  of  general  interest.  Everything  else  moves  round 
this,  as  the  centre  of  the  thought.  If,  in  the  construction  of  the  sen- 
tence, this  person  or  thing  becomes  the  grammatical  subject  of  the 
several  verbs,  if  it  is  also  that  to  which  the  several  adjectives  or  par- 
ticles apply,  the  unity  of  the  sentence  is  at  once  secured. 

"After  we  came  to  anchor,  they  put  me  on  shore,  where  /was  welcomed  by  all  my 
friends,  who  received  me  with  the  greatest  kindness."  Here  are  four  verbs,  each  with 
a  different  subject,  "we,"  "  they,"  "  I,"  "  who."  The  mind  is  hurried  from  one  subject 
and  scene  to  another,  until  the  thoughts  are  a  perfect  chaos.  Yet  if  we  stop  to  analyze 
the  passage,  we  find  a  sufficient  bond  of  connection  among  the  several  ideas.  The  con- 
necting link  is  the  person  of  the  narrator.  Rearranging  the  sentence  on  this  basis, 
we  have  the  following :  "  Having  come  to  an  anchor,  7  was  put  on  shore,  where  7  waa 
welcomed  by  all  my  friends,  and  received  with  the  greatest  kindness." 

"  The  highly  raised  expectation  of  the  audience  was  more  than  satisfied  with  the 
exuberance  of  his  thought  and  the  splendor  of  his  diction,  while  the  character  and 
institutions  of  the  natives  of  India  were  described  by  him  ;  the  circumstances  in  which 
the  Asiatic  empire  of  Britain  had  originated,  were  recounted ;  and  the  constitution  of 
the  Company  and  of  the  English  Presidencies  was  set  forth."    Here  are  four  separata 

*  Blwr,  Lecture  XI. 


120  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

•ubjecta,  carrying  the  mind  successively  to  four  difiFerent  points  of  yiew,  and  thus 
effectually  destroying  all  unity  of  thought.  The  real  centre  of  interest  in  the  sentence 
la  "he,"  Burke,  the  orator.  See  how  everything  crystallizes  around  this  central  idea 
of  the  passage,  aa  it  comes  from  the  pen  of  Macaulay  :  "  With  an  exuberance  of  thought 
and  a  splendor  of  diction  which  more  than  satisfied  the  highly  raised  expectations  of 
the  audience,  he  described  the  character  and  institutions  of  the  natives  of  India ; 
recounted  the  circumstances  in  which  the  Asiatic  empire  of  Britain  had  originated ; 
And  set  forth  the  constitution  of  the  Company  and  of  the  Presidencies." 


2.  Orowding  Together  tMngs  unconnected. 
Do  not  crowd  into  one  sentence  things  which  have  so 
little  connection  that  they  can  just  as  well  be  divided  into 
two  or  more  sentences. 

"  He  [Tillotson]  was  exceedingly  beloved  both  by  King  William  and  Queen  Mary 
toho  nominated  Dr.  Tennison,  Bishop  of  London,  to  stccceed  him.'"  Here  the  thought  in 
the  latter  clause  has  no  natural  connection  with  that  in  the  former,  and  the  two 
should  not  be  connected  grammatically.  If  the  latter  clause  contained  some  reason 
■why  the  deceased  Archbishop  had  been  so  beloved  by  the  King  and  Queen,  as,  for 
example,  "  who  had  known  him  intimately  many  years,"  or,  if  it  contained  some  cir- 
cumstance showing  the  extent  of  their  grief,  as  "  who  ordered  a  monument  to  his 
memory  to  be  erected  in  Westminster  Abbey,"  the  addition  of  tlic  clause  would  bo 
excusable.  As  it  is,  the  two  clauses  contain  two  independent  assertions,  which  are 
connected  grammatically,  though  unconnected  in  thought.  We  might  as  well  say, 
"  The  flood  carried  away  the  wire  bridge  built  by  Mr.  Roebling,  who  lives  in  the  city 
of  Trenton." 

"  To  this  succeeded  that  licentiousness  which  entered  with  the  Restoration,  and 
firom  infecting  our  religion  and  morals,  fell  to  corrtipt  our  language ;  which  last  was 
not  likely  to  be  much  improved  by  those  who  at  that  time  made  up  the  court  of  King 
Charles  the  Second  ;  either  such  as  had  followed  him  in  his  banishment,  or  had  been 
altogether  conversant  in  the  dialect  of  these  fanatic  times ;  or  young  men  who  had 
been  educated  in  the  same  country ;  so  that  the  coiirt,  which  used  to  be  the  standard 
of  correctness  and  propriety  of  speech,  was  then,  and  I  think  has  ever  since  continued, 
the  worst  school  in  England  for  that  accomplishment ;  and  so  will  remain,  till  better 
care  be  taken  in  the  education  of  our  nobility,  that  they  may  be  set  out  in  the  world 
with  some  foundation  of  literature,  in  order  to  qualify  them  for  patterns  of  polite- 
ness." —  Swift. 

The  faults  of  thig  sentence  are  manifold,  besides  its  utter  want  of 
unity.  The  only  way  thoroughly  to  remedy  these  faults  would  be 
to  rewrite  the  sentence,  preserving  the  thoughts,  but  paying  no 
regard  to  the  present  construction.  The  passage  may  be  to  some 
extent  improved  by  breaking  it  up  into  five  or  six  sentences,  with  a 
few  slight  verbal  changes,  thus : 

"To  this  succeeded  that  licentiousness,  which  entered  with  the  Restoration,  and 
[which],  from  infecting  our  religion  and  morals,  fell  to  corrupt[ing]  our  language. 
This  last  was  not  likely  to  be  much  improved  by  those  who  at  that  time  made  up  the 
court  of  King  Charles  the  geoood.    [These  were]  either  such  as  had  followed  him  in 


SENTENCES  —  UNITY.  121 

his  banishment,  or  such  as  had  been  altogether  conversant  in  the  dialect  of  these 
fanatic  times ;  or  [they  were]  young  men  who  had  been  educated  in  the  same  country 
[with  him].  Consequently  the  court,  which  used  to  be  the  standard  of  correctness  and 
propriety  of  speech,  was  then,  as  I  think  [it]  has  ever  since  continued  [to  be],  the 
worst  school  in  England  for  that  accomplishment.  So  will  it  remain,  till  better  care 
be  taken  in  the  education  of  our  nobility,  that  they  be  set  out  in  the  world  with  some 
foundation  in  literature,  in  order  to  qualify  them  for  patterns  of  politeness." 

3.  Relative  Clauses. 
Do  not  complicate  a  sentence  by  hanging  a  relative  clause 
upon  another  relative  clause  which  is  itself  in  a  dependent 
condition. 

"What  is  not  Forbidden.  —  This  rule  does  not  forbid  two  or  more 
relative  clauses  having  a  common  dependence  upon  some  preceding 
word  or  clause,  as,  for  example,  in  one  of  the  sentences  just  given: 
"  To  this  succeeded  that  licentiousness,  which  entered  with  the 
Restoration,  and  which,  from  infecting  our  religion  and  morals,  fell 
to  infecting  our  language."  The  two  clauses  here,  beginning  with 
"which,"  have  a  common  dependence  upon  "licentiousness."  The 
construction  therefore  is  allowable. 

"  Cicero  was  opposed  by  a  new  and  cruel  affliction,  the  death  of  his  beloved  daugh- 
ter Tullia ;  which  happened  soon  after  her  divorce  from  Dolabella ;  wliost  manners 
and  humors  were  entirely  disagreeable  to  him."  Here  the  third  clause,  beginning 
with  "whose,"  is  dependent  upon  the  second,  beginning  with  "which,"  and  that  in 
turn  is  dependent  upon  the  first  or  principal  cause.  There  is  indeed  a  connection 
running  through  ^he  whole,  but  it  is  the  connection  of  links  in  a  chain,  rather  than 
that  of  independent  links  hanging  separately  upon  some  common  support ;  and  this 
hanging  of  one  relative  clause  upon  another  which  is  itself  dependent  is  highly  objec- 
tionable. 

"  The  march  [of  the  Greeks]  was  through  an  uncultivated  country,  whose  savage 
inhabitants  fared  hardly,  having  no  other  riches  than  a  breed  of  lean  sheep,  whose 
flesh  was  rank  and  unsavory,  by  reason  of  their  continual  feeding  upon  sea-fish." 
Here  the  second  relative  clause  is  directly  dependent  upon  the  first,  as  the  first  is 
upon  the  main  affirmation  of  the  sentence.  The  construction  therefore  is  in  violation 
of  the  rule.  The  second  "  whose  "  refers  to  "  sheep,"  the  first  to  "  country."  They 
marched  through  a  country  whose  inhabitants  ate  flesh  which  was  bad.  The  essence 
of  the  fault  here  consists,  not  in  there  being  no  connection  in  the  things  mentioned, 
but  in  this  repetition  of  the  "  which  "  without  a  common  antecedent.  The  sentence 
thereby  becomes  involved  and  its  unity  impaired.  The  passage  may  be  greatly  im- 
proved by  a  slight  alteration,  dividing  it  into  two  sentences.  Thus :  "  The  march  of 
the  Greeks  was  through  an  uncultivated  country.  Its  savage  inhabitants  fared 
hardly,  having  no  other  riches  than  a  breed  of  lean  sheep,  whose  flesh  was  rank  and 
unsavory  by  reason  of  their  continual  feeding  upon  sea-fish." 

4.  Parentheses. 
Keep  clear  of  parentheses. 

Blair's  Opinion  of  Parentheses.  —  "On  some  occasions,  parentheses 
11* 


122  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

may  have  a  spirited  appearance,  as  prompted  by  a  certain  vivacity 
of  thought,  which  can  glance  happily  aside,  as  it  is  going  along. 
But,  for  the  most  part,  their  effect  is  extremely  bad  ;  being  a  sort  of 
wheels  within  wheels;  sentences  in  the  midst  of  sentences;  the  per- 
plexed method  of  disposing  of  some  thought,  which  a  writer  wants  ^ 
art  to  introduce  in  its  proper  place." 

Danger  in  Using  Parentheses.  — Writers  who  indulge  much  in  the 
use  of  parentheses  are  apt  to  be  led  on  from  one  thing  to  another, 
until  the  starting-point  of  the  sentence  is  entirely  lost  sight  of,  and  it 
has  to  be  recalled  to  the  reader's  attention  by  "  I  say,"  or  some  such 
awkward  formula  of  repetition.  The  use  of  this  clumsy  device  is  a 
sure  sign  of  a  badly  constructed  sentence.  It  is  an  open  admission 
on  the  part  of  the  writer,  that  his  sentence  has  become  involved,  and 
that  he  lacks  either  the  skill  or  the  industry  to  make  its  construction 
better. 

5.  Supplementary  Clauses. 

Do  not  tack  on  an  additional  or  supplementary  clause, 
after  the  sentence  has  been  apparently  brought  to  a  close. 

"With  these  writings  [Cicero's],  young  divines  are  more  conversant  than  with 
those  of  Demosthenes,  who,  by  many  degrees,  excelled  the  other ;  at  least  as  an 
orator."  Any  one  reading  this  sentence  feels,  on  coming  to  "  other,"  as  if  the  sense 
was  completed,  and  the  voice  at  this  place  naturally  comes  to  a  halt.  The  whole 
structure  of  what  goes  before  creates  the  expectation  of  a  pause  here.  The  proposi- 
tion is  concluded  ;  we  look  for  no  more.  The  added  words,  therefore,  come  in  with  a 
very  bad  grace.  How  much  better  the  sentence  would  have  been,  if  constructed  thus : 
"  With  these  writings  [Cicero's],  young  divines  are  more  conversant  than  with  those 
of  Demosthenes,  who,  as  an  orator  at  least,  excelled,  by  many  degrees,  the  other." 

"  The  first  [writer]  could  not  end  his  learned  treatise  without  a  panegyric  of  modeTn 
learning,  in  comparison  of  the  ancient ;  and  the  other  falls  so  grossly  into  the  cen- 
sure of  the  old  poetry,  and  preference  of  the  new,  that  I  could  not  read  either  of  these 
strains  without  some  indignation ;  which  no  quality  among  men  is  so  apt  to  raise  in  me 
as  self-sufficiency ."  Here  "indignation"  concludes  the  sentence.  The  added  clause 
is  a  new  and  independent  proposition,  and  ought  to  make  a  separate  sentence. 

Blair  on  Supplementary  Clauses.  —  "An  unfinished  sentence  is  no 
sentence  at  all.  But  very  often  we  meet  with  sentences  that  are,  so  to 
speak,  more  than  finished.  When  we  have  arrived  at  what  we  expected 
was  to  be  the  conclusion ;  when  we  have  come  to  the  Avord  on  which 
the  mind  is  naturally  led,  by  what  went  before,  to  rest ;  unexpect- 
edly, some  circumstance  pops  out,  which  ought,  [either]  to  have 
been  omitted,  or  to  have  been  disposed  of  elsewhere ;  but  which  is 
left  lagging  behinft,  like  a  tail  adjusted  to  the  sentence.  All  these 
•djections  to  the  proper  close  disfigure  a  sentence  extremely.     Thej 


SENTENCES  —  UNITY.  123 

give  it  a  lame,  ungraceful  aim,  and,  in  particular,  they  break  its 
unity."  — Blair. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[Sentences  to  be  corrected  in  reference  to  Unity,  under  some  of  tke  heads  which 
have  been  discussed.] 

1.  They  asserted  not  only  the  future  immortality,  but  the  past 
eternity  of  the  human  soul,  which  they  were  too  apt  to  consider  as 
a  portion  of  the  infinite  and  self-existing  spirit  which  pervades  and 
sustains  the  universe. 

2.  *'  These  things  regulate  themselves,"  in  common  phrase  ;  which 
means,  of  course,  that  God  regulates  them  by  his  general  laws,  which 
always,  in  the  long  run,  work  to  good. 

3.  Language  cannot  spring  from  intuition,  for  hearts  are  surely 
the  possessors  of  instinct,  which,  however,  does  not  lead  them  to 
this  method  of  expressing  themselves. 

4.  Here  and  there  some  remnant  of  a  large  monument  stands  as  a 
sentinel,  and  the  whole  structure  is  indeed  a  sublime  relic  of  past 
grandeur. 

5.  Thus  with  her  few  notes  does  nature  ring  the  changes  of  the 
seasons;  which  we  admire,  and  endeavoring  to  imitate,  find  but 
shadowy  success. 

6.  He  spoils  not  a  good  school  to  make  thereof  a  bad  college, 
therein  to  teach  his  scholars  logic. 

7.  In  this  way  the  several  churches  (in  which,  as  one  may  observe, 
opinions  are  preferred  to  life,  and  orthodoxy  is  that  which  they  are 
concerned  for,  and  not  morals)  put  the  terms  of  salvation  on  that 
which  the  Author  of  our  salvation  does  not  put  them  in. 

8.  There  you  are,  out  in  an  open  sea  outside,  and  all  at  sea  inside ; 
and  you  feel  the  need  of  a  chart  for  the  one,  and  an  anchor  for  the 
other,  if  you  can  find  one. 

9.  Dr.  Kane  described  the  Arctic  silence  as  sometimes  almost  dread- 
ful; and  one  day  at  dinner,  while  Thackeray  was  quietly  smoking, 
and  Kane  was  fresh  from  his  travels,  he  told  them  a  story  of  a  sailor 
reading  Pendennis. 

10.  They  told  me,  if  I  would  do  as  you  wished,  my  father,  who 
loves  me  devotedly,  would  answer  all  the  questions  she  asked. 

11.  The  good  old  man  soon  grew  weary  of  the  gay  life  in  the 
house  of  his  son,  who  had  taken  first-honors  at  college,  and  spent 
much  time  and  money  in  the  entertainment  of  his  sporting  friends. 

12.  He  fell  into  trouble  by  his  first  remarks,  which  might  be  cor- 


124  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

rected  by  his  subsequent  behavior  after  a  longer  acquaintance  with 
Dr.  Johnson,  whose  readiness  to  forgive  was  well  known. 

13.  As  we  walked  through  the  beautiful  streets,  whose  sides  were 
lined  with  maple-trees,  whose  leaves  were  just  changing  their  color, 
we  wondered  whose  taste  had  planted  the  town. 

14.  She  said,  if  she  could  find  some  one  (even  if  she  should  not  be 
old  enough,  and  competent  to  do  the  work  required)  for  a  few  weeks, 
she  should  be  thankful. 

15.  One  bright  evening  in  June,  as  I  ran  down  to  the  post-office 
to  get  the  letters  for  father,  (for  I  thought  it  possible  James  had 
written,  and  I  stopped  to  see  if  I  should  inquire  for  our  next-door 
neighbor,)  I  met  the  most  remarkable-looking  woman. 

16.  I  am  entirely  determined,  under  any  circumstances,  to  make 
the  journey,  unless  it  rains. 

17.  There  is  to  be  a  grand  wedding  next  week,  to  which  we  are 
all  to  be  invited,  or  at  least  so  I  hear. 

18.  The  equinoctial  storm  occurred  last  Tuesday,  during  which 
the  lightning  struck  a  tree  near  the  church  that  was  built  last 
spring. 

19.  Having  finished  his  house,  and  furnished  it  handsomely,  he 
moved  into  it  on  the  22d  of  February,  which  is  Washington's  birth- 
day. 

20.  When  the  news  of  the  victory  was  received  at  Washington, 
the  people  exhibited  the  greatest  enthusiasm,  as  it  was  natural  that 
they  should. 

21.  *'  Mind  your  own  business "  is  an  ancient  proverb,  (indeed 
all  proverbs  seem  to  be  ancient,)  which  deserves  a  due  degree  of 
attention  from  all  mankind. 

22.  He  built  a  large  stone  house  on  the  brow  of  the  hill,  (it  cost 
ten  thousand  dollars,)  which  commanded  a  fine  view  of  the  sur- 
rounding country. 

23.  The  vessel  made  for  the  shore,  and  the  passengers  soon 
crowded  into  the  boats,  and  reached  the  beach  in  safety,  where  the 
inhabitants  received  them  with  the  utmost  kindness,  and  a  shelter 
was  provided  for  them. 

24.  The  colonel  ordered  the  regiment  forward,  and  the  men, 
advancing  cautiously,  discovered  a  mine  which  the  enemy  had 
made,  in  order,  if  possible,  to  blow  them  to  pieces. 

25.  As  we  rode  to  town,  we  met  a  man  with  a  flock  of  geese,  who 
was  talking  to  a  little  girl,  in  a  pink  sun-bonnet,  who  was  carrying  a 
basket  on  her  arm,  containing  a  few  radishes. 

26.  The  boy  left  the  house  with  a  rake  in  his  hand,  which  his 


SENTENCES  —  STRENGTH.  125 

father  bought  at  Smithville,  where  Mr.  Jones  lives,  who  lost  four 
children  by  the  scarlet  fever  last  winter,  when  we  had  that  dreadful 
snow-storm. 

KTJLE    IV. -STRENGTH. 

A  Sentence  should  he  so  constructed  as  to  give  to  the  Thought 
or  Meaning  which  it  contains  its  full  force. 

What  is  Meant  by  Strength.  —  The  quality  here  referred  to  is  vari- 
ously designated,  as  strength,  energy,  animation,  vividness,  and  so 
forth.  The  rules  already  given  are  all  preliminary  and  preparatory 
to  this.  By  rule  I,  we  secure  simply  the  clear  expression  of  the 
meaning.  But  the  meaning  may  be  expressed  in  such  a  way  that  we 
cannot  mistake  it,  and  yet  with  such  feebleness  of  style  as  to  make 
no  impression.  Rule  II  advances  a  little  from  this  mere  negative 
quality,  and  by  giving  a  proper  position  to  the  main  subject  and 
predicate  of  the  sentence,  makes  them  emphatic,  and  thus  gives  some 
positive  addition  to  the  forcibleness  of  the  expression.  Rule  III,  by 
securing  ao  harmonious  and  rounded  whole,  removes  obstacles,  and 
clears  the  way  for  a  free  current  of  the  thought.  Something  more, 
however,  is  needed  than  this.  A  sentence  may  express  the  author's 
meaning,  it  may  give  emphasis  to  the  leading  parts,  it  may  observe 
the  strictest  rules  of  unity,  and  yet  we  feel  that  it  wants  something. 
The  author's  meaning  is  not  expressed  with  that  force  of  which  it  is 
capable.  Of  course,  it  does  not  belong  to  Style  to  give  rules  for 
obtaining  forcible  or  strong  thoughts.  That  belongs  to  Invention. 
But  supposing  an  author  to  have  a  certain  thought  in  his  mind,  it  is 
the  business  of  the  part  of  Rhetoric  which  we  are  now  studying,  to 
show  how  that  idea  or  thought  may  be  so  expressed  as  to  produce 
the  strongest  impression. 

In  constructing  a  sentence  so  as  to  secure  for  it  the  full  strength  of  which  the 

thought  is  capable,  several  subordinate  rules  are  to  be  observed. 

1.  Eedundant  "Words. 

A  sentence  is  made  stronger  by  leaving  out  redundant 
words.  It  may  be  taken  for  granted,  that  whatever  in  a 
sentence  does  not  add  to  the  meaning  enfeebles  it.  Every 
redundant  word  is  so  much  dead  weight. 

"  The  least  that  is  said  on  the  subject,  the  soonest  it  will  be  mended."  expresses  the 

9 


126  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

idea  clearly  enough,  but  not  with  half  the  force  of  the  usual  expression,  "  Least  said, 
soonest  mended." 

"  Content  with  deserving  a  triumph,  he  refused  the  honor  of  it,"  is  a  livelier  exprea- 
Bion  than  "  Bdng  content  with  deserving  a  triumph,  he  declined  the  honor  of  it." 

*'  There  is  nothing  which  so  soon  perverts  the  judgment  as  the  habit  of  drinking 
intoxicating  liquors  "  becomes  much  more  sprightly  by  leaving  out  the  unnecessary 
words,  thus :  "  Nothing  perverts  the  judgment  so  soon  as  the  habit  of  drinking 
intoxicating  liquors." 

Necessity  of  Pruning.  —  In  the  first  draught  of  any  piece  of  compo- 
aition,  we  are  apt  to  use  inversions  and  circumlocutions  of  this  kind. 
A  severe  eye  therefore  should  be  used  in  revising  and  pruning  our 
expressions.  In  this  revision  we  should  lop  off  every  word  which 
does  not  add  something  to  the  sense.  The  only  exception  to  this  is 
where  the  inversion  is  needed  for  securing  the  emphasis. 

Whole  Clauses  are  sometimes  redundant.  As  every  word  ought  to 
present  some  new  idea,  so  every  new  clause  or  member  of  the  sentence 
ought  to  present  some  new  thought. 

"  The  very  first  discovery  of  beauty  strikes  the  mind  with  inward  joy,  and  spreads 
delight  through  all  its  faculties^  Here  the  second  clause  adds  little,  if  anything,  to 
the  thought  contained  in  the  firsf.  The  repetition  of  the  same  idea  in  words  slightly 
diflfei-ent  only  enfeebles  the  expression.  It  has  a  similar  effect  to  tliat'produced  by 
putting  an  additional  pint  of  water  into  a  beverage  already  compounded  exactly  to  one's 
taste.    Sentences,  as  well  as  tea  and  coffee,  lose  flavor  by  being  too  much  watered. 

Source  of  Redundancy.  —  A  common  source  of  redundancy  is  the  use  of  a 

separate  word  to  express  an  idea  which  is  implied  in  one  of  the  words  already  used. 
"  To  return  "  is  "  to  go  hack."  The  expression  "  returning  back,''''  is  therefore  redun- 
dant. The  sentence,  "They  returned  hack  again  to  the  same  city  from  whence  they 
came  forth"  contains  five  redundant  words.  The  idea  is  expressed  with  suflBcient 
clearness,  but  it  has  not  bo  much  force  as  when  we  say  simply,  "  They  returned  to  the 
city  whence  they  came." 

" The  boy  had  his  pocket  full  of  a  great  many  apples"  is  an  example  of  the  same 
kind. 

Error  in  the  Opposite  Direction.  —  Before  dismissing  the  subject 
of  redundancy,  it  may  be  observed  that  sometimes  words  are  left 
out  which  ought  really  to  be  kept  in.  This  is  true  especially  of  the 
Eelative  pronoun.  The  ellipsis  of  the  relative  may  be  sometimes 
allowable  in  conversation,  where  the  meaning  is  helped  out  a  good 
deal  by  the  tone,  emphasis,  and  gesture,  and  also  in  familiar  letters ; 
but  in  serious  composition  such  ellipsis  should  rarely  take  place. 
The  insertion  of  the  relative  in  its  proper  place  almost  always  makes 
the  meaning  more  precise  and  determinate.  "The  man  I  loved  " 
should  be  "The  man  whom  I  loved."  "  The  dominions  wc  possessed, 
and  the  conquests  we  made  "  should  be  "  The  dominions  which  we 
possessed,  and  the  conquests  which  we  made." 


SENTENCES  —  STRENGTH*.  127 

2.  The  Use  of  Very,  and  other  Intensive  Expressionsi 
A  sentence  is  made  stronger  by  avoiding  the  too  frequent 
use  of  very,  and  of  other  intensive  or  superlative  expressions. 
Inexperienced  writers  would  do  well,  after  completing  any 
piece  of  composition,  to  go  through  it,  pen  in  hand,  and 
strike  out  three-fourths  of  the  epithets,  every  superlative, 
and  every  "very,"  which  the  sense  does  not  imperatively 
demand. 

Blair  says,  in  speaking  of  sublimity,  "  It  is  not  easy  to  describe  in  words  the  precise 
impression  which  great  and  sublime  objects  make  upon  us.  .  .  .  The  emotion  is  cer- 
tainly delightful,  but  it  is  altogether  of  the  serious  kind."  A  feeble  writer,  wishing 
to  express  the  same  idea,  would  be  apt  to  dilute  it,  as  follows :  "  It  is  not  very  easy  to 
describe  in  words  mcrdy  the  precise  and  exact  impressions  which  very  great  and  sub- 
lime objects  make  upon  us.  The  emotion  most  certainly  is  extremely  delightful,  but 
still  it  is  altogether  of  a  very  serious  and  solemn  kind." 

3.  Words  of  Connection  and  Transition. 
The  strength  of  a  sentence  may  often  be  increased  by  care 
in  the  use  of  the  words  employed  to  mark  connection  or 
transition.    These  are  chiefly  the  relative  pronouns,  the  con- 
junctions, and  the  prepositions. 

"These  little  words,  but,  and,  which,  whose,  lohere,  Ac,  are  frequently  the  most 
important  of  any ;  they  are  tlie  joints  or  hinges  upon  which  all  sentences  turn,  and 
of  course,  much,  both  of  the  gracefulness  and  strength  of  sentences,  must  depend  upon 
Buch  particles."  —  Blair. 

No  system  of  rules  can  be  framed  to  suit  all  the  cases  that  arise 
under  this  head.  All  that  can  be  done  is  to  give  a  few  examples,  with 
the  observations  which  naturally  grow  out  of  them. 

Splitting  Particles.  —  "Though  virtue  borrows  no  assistance /rom, 
yet  it  may  often  be  accompanied  by,  the  advantages  of  fortune." 
This  kind  of  construction  is  called  splitting  particles.  It  consists 
in  separating  a  preposition  from  the  noun  which  it  governs.  This 
violent  separation  of  things  which  ought  to  be  closely  united  gives 
an  unsatisfied  and  displeased  feeling  to  the  mind.  It  brings  the 
current  of  thought  to  a  disagreeable  stand-still,  and  obliges  us  to 
rest  for  a  time  on  a  little  word  which  carries  no  meaning  with  it 
until  it  is  connected  with  its  proper  object.  A  better  arrangement 
of  the  sentence  would  have  been,  **  Though  virtue  borrows  no  assist- 
ance from  the  advantages  of  fortune,  yet  it  may  often  be  accompanied 
by  them." 


128  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Management  of  And.  —  Considerable  skill  is  needed  for  the  proper  manage- 
ment of  the  conjunction  and.  It  is  often  used  for  stringing  one  clause  upon  another 
In  a  careless,  slip-shod  way,  which  has  an  enfeebling  effect  upon  the  style.  "  The 
Academy  set  up  by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  to  amuse  the  wits  of  that  age  and  country, 
and  divert  them  from  raking  into  his  politics  and  ministry,  brought  this  into  vogue ; 
and  the  French  wits  have,  for  this  last  age,  been  wholly  turned  to  the  refinement  of 
their  style  and  language ;  and,  indeed,  with  such  success,  that  it  can  hardly  be  equal- 
led, and  runs  equally  through  their  verse  and  their  prose."  Here  are  two  faults, 
first  an  undue  repetition  of  the  "and;"  secondly,  putting  into  one  sentence  what 
would  be  more  effective  if  made  into  two  or  three  sentences.  Thus:  "The  Academy 
set  up  by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  to  amuse  the  wits  of  that  age  and  country,  and  [to] 
divert  them  from  raking  into  his  politics  and  ministry,  brought  this  into  vogue. 
The  French  wits  have  [accordingly]  for  this  last  age,  been  wholly  turned  to  the 
refinement  of  their  style  and  language,  and  with  such  success,  that  it  can  hardly  be 
equalled.    It  runs  equally  through  their  vei'se  and  their  prose." 

Apparent  Paradox. — Here  we  may  notice  an  apparent  paradox  in 
regard  to  tlie  use  of  conjunctions.  The  object  of  the  conjunction  is 
to  join  words  together,  so  as  to  make  their  connection  more  close; 
yet  in  effect  we  often  mark  a  closer  connection  by  omitting  the  con- 
necting word.  *'  [Charity]  beareth  all  things,  believeth  all  things, 
hopeth  all  things,  endureth  all  things."  Here,  by  omitting  the  con- 
junction between  the  verbs,  we  actually  bring  the  several  effects  or 
operations  more  closely  together.*  In  consequence  of  the  conjunc- 
tion being  out  of  the  way,  the  mind  passes  more  quickly  from 
thought  to  thought.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  writer  wishes  us 
to  rest  for  a  moment  on  each  item  in  an  enumeration  of  particulars, 
the  conjunction  is  repeated  after  each.  "Such  a  man  might  fall  a 
victim  to  power ;  but  truth,  and  reason,  and  liberty,  would  fall  with 
him." 

Blair's  Observation.  —  "It  is  a  remarkable  peculiarity  in  language,  that 
the  omission  of  a  connecting  particle  should  sometimes  serve  to  make  objects  appear 
more  closely  connected ;  and  that  the  repetition  of  it  should  distinguish  and  sepa- 
rate them,  in  some  measure,  from  each  other.  Hence,  the  omission  of  it  is  used  to 
denote  rapidity ;  and  the  repetition  of  it  is  designed  to  retard  and  to  aggravate.  The. 
reason  seems  to  be,  that,  in  the  former  case,  the  mind  is  supposed  to  be  hurried  so 
fast  through  a  quick  succession  of  objects,  that  it  has  not  leisure  to  point  out  their 
connection;  it  drops  the  copulatives  in  its  hurry;  and  crowds  the  whole  scries 
together,  as  if  it  were  but  one  object.  When  we  enumerate,  with  a  view  to  aggra- 
vate, the  mind  is  supposed  to  proceed  with  a  more  slow  and  solemn  pace ;  it  marks 
fully  the  relation  of  each  object  to  that  which  succeeds  it ;  and,  by  joining  them 
together  with  several  copulatives,  makes  you  perceive  that  the  objects,  though  con- 
nected, are  yet  in  themselves  distinct ;  that  they  are  many,  not  one." 

*  This  fipruro,  called  Axynd^ton  (omitting  the  connectives),  was  much  practised  by 
Greek  and  Roman  writers,  and  some  examples  have  attained  historical  celebrity,  as 
the  Ve.in,vidi,vici  of  Caesar,  and  the  Ahiit,  excf.tnt,C7-asif.,  erupit  of  Cicero.  So  also 
the  opposite  figure,  J^lysyndeton  (multiplying  the  connectives),  was  much  in  vogue 
among  them. 


SENTENCES  —  STRENGTH.  129 

Some  examples  will  illustrate  these  points  : 

"One  effort,  one,  to  break  the  circling  host; 
They  form,  unite,  charge,  waver,  —  all  is  lost!" — Byron. 

.    ,    .    "Of  their  wonted  vigor  left  them  drained. 
Exhausted,  spiritless,  afflicted,  fallen."  —  Milton. 

Observe  .how  the  r^etition  of  the  and  in  the  following  enu- 
meration, serves  to  separate  the  several  items,  and  thus  to  intensify 
and  aggravate  the  whole : 

"Love  was  not  in  their  looks,  either  to  God 
Or  to  each  other,  but  apparent  guilt, 
And  shame,  and  perturbation,  and  despair, 
Anger,  and  obstinacy,  and  hate,  and  guile."  —  Milton. 

Observe,  too,  how  the  supplies  needed  by  David  and  his  men  seem 
to  be  piled  up  in  his  camp  by  the  eager  zeal  of  the  country  people : 

"  They  brought  beds,  and  basins,  and  earthen  vessels,  and  wheat,  and  barley,  and 
flour,  and  parched  corn,  and  beans,  and  lentils,  and  parched  pulse,  and  honey,  and 
butter,  and  sheep,  and  cheese  of  kine."  —  2  Sam.  xvii.  28,  29. 

So,  too,  our  Saviour,  in  his  description  of  the  house  upon  the 
sand,  by  repeating  the  conjunction,  obliges  the  mind  of  the  reader 
to  dwell  on  each  successive  stage  in  the  sad  catastrophe ; 

"And  the  rain  descended,  and  the  floods  came,  and  the  winds  blew,  and  beat  upon 
that  house;  and  it  fell :  and  great  was  the  fall  of  it." — Matt.  vii.  27,  28. 

A  similar  effect  is  produced  by  the  repetition  of  or  and  nor. 

"  I  am  persuaded,  that  neither  death,  nor  life,  nor  angels,  nor  principalities,  nor 
powers,  run-  things  present,  nor  things  to  come,  nor  height,  nnr  depth,  nor  any  other 
creature  shall  be  able  to  separate  us  from  tlie  love  of  God,  which  is  in  Christ  Jesus 
our  Lord."  —  Rom,  viii.  38,  39. 

"Thus  with  the  year 
Seasons  return,  but  not  to  me  returns 
Day,  or  the  sweet  approach  of  even  or  mom, 
Or  sight  of  vernal  bloom,  or  summer's  rose. 
Or  flocks,  or  herds,  or  human  face  divine."  —  Milton. 


4.  Bringing  to  a  Conclnsion. 

The  strength  of  a  sentence  is  promoted  by  due  care  in 
bringing  it  to  a  conclusion. 

The  Reason.  —  The  mind  naturally  dwells  upon  the  last  word.     We 
should  be  careful  therefore  not  to  end  a  sentence  with  any  word  that 
12 


130  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETOEIC. 

is   comparatively   unimportant,    mean,  or    belittling.     Such    words 
should  be  disposed  of  in  some  less  conspicuous  place. 

It  is  rarely  expedient  to  end  a  sentence  with  an  adverb. 

"Such  things  were  not  allowed  formerly.''''  This  sentence  gains  decidedly  in 
strength  by  transposing  the  adverb  thus :  "  Formerly  such  things  were  not  allowed." 
It  may  be  indeed  that  the  adverb  is  emphatic.  In  that  case,  it  should  of  course  be 
placed  wherever  the  emphasis  will  be  brought  out  most  clearly,  as  in  this  sentence  : 
"  In  their  prosperity,  my  friends  shall  never  hear  of  me  ;  in  their  adversity,  always." 

Avoid  ending  a  sentence  with  ik  preposition. 

"  Avarice  is  a  vice  which  wise  men  are  often  guilty  o/."  Change  thus :  "  Avarice  is  a 
vice  of  which  wise  men  are  often  guilty." 

"  He  is  one  whom  good  men  are  glad  to  be  acquainted  with."  Change  thus :  "  Ho 
is  one  with  whom  good  men  are  glad  to  be  acquainted." 

Objections  to  Ending^  with  a  Preposition.  —  Besides  the  want  of 
dignity  which  arises  from  ending  a  sentence  with  one  of  these  small  monosyllables, 
with,  from,  of,  in,  to,  by,  and  so  on,  the  mind,  as  already  stated,  cannot  help  resting 
for  a  moment  upon  the  last  word ;  and  if  that  word,  instead  of  presenting  some  idea 
or  picture  to  the  imagination,  some  substantive  import  of  its  own,  merely  serves  to 
point  out  the  relation  of  some  other  words,  the  effect  cannot  be  otherwise  than 
enfeebling. 

To  laiigii  at,  dtc.  —  The  rule  is  not  to  be  observed  so  strictly  in  the  case  of 
prepositions  which  are  used  after  a  verb  in  such  close  relation  to  it  as  to  make  a  vir- 
tual compound,  like  laugh  at,  bring  about,  lay  hold  of  clear  up,  &c.  Even  in  these 
cases,  however,  it  is  desirable,  so  far  as  we  can,  to  find  some  simple  verb,  of  the  same 
meaning,  wherewith  to  end  the  sentence. 

The  Pronoun  "it,"  especially  when  accompanied  with  a  preposi- 
tion, as  withit,  in  it,  to  it,  &c.,  makes  a  feeble  ending  to  the  sentence. 

"  There  is  not,  In  my  opinion,  a  more  pleasing  and  triumphant  consideration  in 
religion,  than  this,  of  the  perpetual  progress  which  the  soul  makes  towards  the  per- 
fection of  its  nature,  without  ever  arriving  at  a  period  in  it." 

An  unimportant  phrase  or  circumstance  brings  up  the  rear  of  a 
sentence  with  a  bad  grace. 

"  Let  me,  therefore,  conclude  by  repeating,  that  division  has  caused  all  the  mischief 
or  lament ;  that  union  alone  can  retrieve  it ;  and  that  a  great  advance  towards  this 
union,  was  the  coalition  of  parties,  so  happily  begun,  so  successfully  carried  on,  and 
of  late  so  unaccountably  neglected  ;  to  say  no  worse.'"  The  concluding  phrase,  which 
I  have  placed  in  italics,  makes  a  sad  falling  off  in  a  sentence  otherwise  admirably 
constructed. 

Faulty  Contrasts.  —  Observe  how  a  sentence  is  weakened  by  faulty 
contrasts : 

"William  is  the  better  reader,  but  John  writes  best." 
"  I  cannot  draw  as  well  as  I  am  able  to  sing." 


SENTENCES — STRENGTH.         131 

"Philadelphia  ia  the  largest  in  extent,  but  New  York  contains  a  greater  number 
of  inhabitants." 

"The  President  holds  the  Executive  power  of  the  land,  but  the  Legislative  power 
is  vested  in  Congress." 

5.  Contrasted  Changes. 

In  cases  of  contrast,  the  sentence  becomes  stronger  and 
more  effective,  if  the  contrasted  members  are  constructed 
alike. 

"  Tlie  laughers  will  be  for  those  who  have  most  wit ;  the  serious  part  of  mankind  for 
those  who  have  most  reason  on  their  side."  Correct  thus  :  "  The  laughers  will  be  for 
those  who  have  most  wit ;  the  serious  for  those  who  have  most  reason  on  their  side." 

"  Ignorance  is  a  blank  sheet,  on  which  we  must  write ;  error,  a  scribbled  one,  from 

which  we  must  erase." 

• 

No  English  writer  is  more  observant  of  this  rule  than  Junius. 
Much  indeed  of  the  force  of  his  invective  is  due  to  the  perfection  of 
his  sentences  in  this  respect. 

"  They  are  still  base  enough  to  encourage  the  follies  of  your  age,  as  they  once  did 
the  vices  of  your  youth." 

"  They  tell  you,  that  ....  as  you  lived  without  virtue,  you  should  die  without 
repentance." 

6.  Climax. 

A  sentence  consisting  of  several  clauses  receives  a  great 
increase  of  strength  by  having  its  clauses  arranged  with  a 
view  to  a  climax. 

The  following  passages  afford  instances  of  this  style  of  construction : 
"  The  power  of  man,  his  greatness,  his  glory,  depend  on  essential  qualities." 
"A  word  from  his  lips,  a  thought  from  his  brain,  might  turn  their  hearts,  might 
influence  their  passions,  might  change  their  opinions,  might  affect  their  destiny." 

"  This  decency,  this  grace,  this  propriety  of  manners  to  character,  is  so  essential  to 
princes  in  particular,  that,  whenever  it  is  neglected,  their  virtues  lose  a  great  degree 
of  lustre,  and  their  defects  acquire  much  aggravation.  Nay,  more ;  by  neglecting 
this  decency  and  this  grace,  and  for  want  of  a  sufficient  regard  to  appearances,  even 
their  virtues  may  betray  them  into  failings,  their  failings  into  vices,  and  their  vices 
into  habits  unworthy  of  princes,  and  unworthy  of  men." 

Climax  not  Common. — It  is  not  always  easy  to  construct  a  sen- 
tence in  this  way,  that  is,  with  a  succession  of  clauses,  each  rising 
and  growing  in  importance  above  its  predecessor.  Not  every  sub- 
ject admits  of  such  an  arrangement,  nor  would  it  be  desirable  to 
construct  all  our  sentences,  or  even  a  majority  of  them,  on  this 
model.     The  effect  would  be  to  destroy  all  simplicity,  and  to  make 


132  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

the  style  stiff  and  pompous.     Yet  an  occasional  climax,  brought  in 
at  the  right  time  and  place,  has  a  powerful  effect. 

Climax  of  Sentences.  —  Not  only  clauses  of  the  same  sentence  should 
be  arranged  with  reference  to  this  idea,  but  two  or  more  independent 
sentences,  coming  in  succession,  may  be  made  more  effective  by  a 
similar  arrangement.  The  general  rule  of  Quintilian  on  the  subject 
is,  "That  a  weaker  assertion  or  proposition  should  never  come  after 
a  stronger  one." 

Cicero  uses  the  following  climax  in  his  oration  against  Verres :  ".  To  bind  a  Roman 
citizen  is  an  outrage ;  to  scourge  him  is  an  atrocious  crime ;  to  put  him  to  death  is 
almost  a  parricide ;  but  to  put  him  to  death  by  ckccifixion, — what  shall  I  call  it?  " 

Minor  Climax. — Besides  this  elaborate  sort  of  climax,  which  is 
necessarily  ©nly  of  occasional  occurrence,  there  is  a  minor  species  of 
climax  which  demands  constant  attention.  Very  many  sentences, 
perhaps  one-half  or  one-third  of  all  that  occur  in  ordinary  composi- 
tion, consist  of  two  members  or  clauses,  and  of  these  clauses  one  is 
ordinarily  longer  than  the  other.  In  such  cases,  unless  in  any  par- 
ticular instance  there  is  some  reason  to  the  contrary,  the  shorter 
clause  should  come  first.  Periods,  thus  divided,  are  pronounced 
more  easily.  Besides  this,  the  shortest  member  being  placed  first, 
we  carry  it  more  readily  in  our  memory  while  proceeding  to  the 
second. 

"  When  our  passions  have  forsaken  us,  we  flatter  ourselves  with  the  belief  that  we 
have  forsaken  them."  This  is  a  better  sentence  than  it  would  be,  if  the  clauses  were 
transposed,  thus :  "  We  flatter  ourselves  with  the  belief  that  we  have  forsaken  our 
passions,  when  they  have  forsaken  us." 

Examples. — The  following  examples  will  show  how  the  meaning  may 
be  weakened,  and  even  made  ridiculous,  by  a  poorly  arranged  climax : 

Oh  dear  I  oh  dear !  what  shall  I  do  ? 
I  've  lost  my  wife  and  seed-corn  too  I 
He  lost  his  wife,  his  child,  his  household  goods,  and  his  dog,  at  one  fell  swoop. 
David  was  a  great  warrior,  a  great  statesman,  a  great  poet,  and  a  skilful  performer 
on  the  harp. 

What  were  the  results  of  this  conduct? — beggary!  dishonor!  utter  ruin!  and  a 
broken  leg  I 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[Sentences  containing  violations  of  some  of  the  rules  laid  down  for  promoting 
Strength.  The  student  is  expected  to  point  out  the  inaccuracy,  and  to  reconstruct 
the  sentences,  avoiding  that  particular  fault.] 

1.  Of  his  ascent  up  Mount  Vesuvius,  he  gives  a  very  interesting 
account. 


SENTENCES — STRENGTH.         133 

2.  When  such  a  man  is  found,  his  name  is  in  every  one's  mouth, 
his  praises  are  sounded  by  all. 

3.  He  goes  to  Europe  in  order  to  recover  his  health  from  a  severe 
attack  of  bronchitis. 

4.  Few  have  ever  described  Niagara  with  so  much  vividness  as 
this  author. 

5.  We  delight  in  such  a  work,  whether  it  pleases  the  eye,  enriches 
the  understanding,  or  supplies  our  humbler  needs. 

6.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  drew  prognostics  from  prodigies,  that 
is  to  say,  from  rare  natural  appearances ;  among  which  comets, 
meteors,  and  eclipses  held  an  important  place. 

7.  The  whole  of  it  is  pervaded  by  a  spirit  of  judicial  calmness. 

8.  When  will  the  curtain  rise  up  ? 

9.  He  reduced  the  pounds  down  to  shillings  and  pence. 

10.  From  whence  did  he  come  ? 

11.  As  I  previously  remarked  before  now,  I  say  again. 

12.  The  sentence  is  full  of  the  greatest  number  of  mistakes. 

13.  I  have  got,  at  the  very  lowest  calculation,  at  least  one  hun- 
dred votes. 

14.  I  was  sorry  to  hear  that  you  were  an  invalid,  that  is  to  say, 
that  you  don't  enjoy  good  health. 

15.  I  am  quite  certain  that  he  was  the  very  identical  boy  to  whom 
you  allude. 

16.  He  took  it  from,  and  would  not  return  it  to,  the  child. 

17.  He  walked  past,  but  did  not  enter  into,  the  garden. 

18.  There  was  no  evidence  of  habitation  about  the  place,  and  nei- 
ther leaf  nor  bud  was  to  be  seen,  and  the  quail  piped,  and  the  crow 
croaked  dismally  and  unceasingly,  and  all  things  were  dreary  and 
unattractive. 

19.  He  was  sure  to  give  the  correct  word  exactly. 

20.  I  will  do  it,  perhaps. 

21.  It  is  a  house  I  should  never  be  willing  to  live  in. 

22.  That  is  a  vice  you  cannot  accuse  me  of. 

23.  The  wrongs  of  Ireland  will  crumble  under  one  well-directed 
blow,  and  D'Israeli  is  the  one  man  in  Parliament  who  knows  how  to 
attend  to  it. 

24.  The  men  were  wearied  with  the  exertions  of  the  preceding 
days,  yet  he  urged  them  on. 

25.  I  do  not  know  what  the  house  is  built  of. 

26.  I  cannot  tell  what  street  he  lives  in. 

27.  He  behaved  much  more  dishonorably  than  was  anticipated. 
12* 


v/ 


134  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

28.  The  house  was  closely  crowded  with  an  immense  nnmber  of 
people. 

29.  They  ascended  up  the  hill. 

80.  They  descended  down  into  the  valley. 
31.  I  will  recompense  him  back  again. 

RULE    V. -HARMONY. 

A  Sentence  should  he  so  constructed  as  to  have  a  Pleasing 
Effect  upon  the  ear. 

The  Rales  thus  far  have  had  reference  to  the  following  points :  1.  Clearness,  2. 
Emphasis,  3.  Unity,  4.  Strength.  Sentences  are  now  to  be  considered  in  reference  to 
Harmont,  or  mere  agreeableness  to  the  ear. 

1,  The  Prevalence  of  Pleasant  Sounds. 
The  Harmony  of  a  sentence  is  promoted  by  the  prevalence 
in  it  of  pleasant  sounds. 

Sound  not  to  be  Disregarded.  —  Sound,  though  a  quality  much  infe- 
rior to  sense,  is  yet  not  to  be  disregarded.  Men  are  influenced,  not 
merely  by  what  is  reasonable,  but  by  what  is  agreeable,  and  no 
thought  can  be  entirely  agreeable  which  is  communicated  to  the 
mind  by  means  of  harsh  and  unpleasant  sounds. 

The  manner  in.  which  a  sentence  sounds  depends,  first  upon  the 
choice  of  words,  secondly  upon  their  arrangement. 

Choice  of  Words.  —  Some  words  are  in  themselves  more  agreeable 
to  the  ear  than  others.  No  definite  rules  can  be  given  for  determin- 
ing what  words  have  a  musical  sound.  The  following  points,  how- 
ever, maybe  assumed:  1.  Whatever  words  are  difficult  of  pronun- 
ciation are,  in  the  same  proportion,  harsh  and  painful  to  the  ear. 
2.  A  preponderance  of  vowels  and  liquids  gives  softness  to  the  sound 
and  ease  in  pronunciation.  3.  The  same  eff'ect  is  produced  by  a 
proper  alternation  of  vowels  and  consonants.  Several  vowels  coming 
together  require  the  mouth  to  be  opened  disagreeably.  Several 
consonants  coming  together,  particularly  if  they  are  mutes,  close  the 
organs  to  an  extent  that  makes  the  utterance  difficult. 

Take  the  word  antiquity.  Dropping  the  consonants,  we  have  aiiy ;  dropping  the 
vowels,  we  have  ntqt.  The  former  combination  is  difficult  of  utterance  on  account 
of  the  hiatus  after  each  of  the  vowels ;  the  latter,  on  account  of  the  entire  absence  of 
hiatus.  We  pass  more  easily  from  one  vowel  to  another  for  having  a  consonant 
between  them,  and  more  easily  from  one  consonant  to  another  for  having  a  vowel 


SENTENCES  —  HARMONY.  135 

between  them.  A  word  in  which  the  vowels  and  consonants  are  duly  mixed  up  is  on 
that  account  more  easily  pronounced  and  more  agreeable  to  the  ear.  Any  one  can 
test  this  by  uttering  such  euphonious  combinations  as  merrily,  happiness,  remedy, 
obloquy,  demeanor,  sonorous,  bridal,  tidal,  hymnal,  &c.,  or  such  difficult  combinations 
as  quencKd,  writst,  placedst,  bak'dst. 

A  Beautiful  Example. — Nothing  can  be  imagined  softer  or  more 
euphonious  than  the  following  lines,  in  which  every  vowel  regularly 
alternates  with  a  consonant,  and  nearly  every  consonant  is  a  liquid : 

Lay  him  low,  lay  him  low, 
In  the  clover  or  the  snow: 
What  cares  he?  he  cannot  know: 
Lay  him  low.  —  Boker. 

A  word,  though  otherwise  euphonious,  is  disagreeable  to  the  ear,  (1.)  When  two 
syllables  of  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same  sound,  succeed  each  other,  as  in  lowlily, 
holily,  gay  lily,  sillily;  (2.)  When  there  is  a  long  succession  of  unaccented  syllables, 
as  in  cursorily,  arbitrarily,  pertmptoriness,  meteorological,  anthropological,  &c. 

Arrangement  of  Words.  —  Words  which  by  themselves  are  suffi- 
ciently euphonious  sometimes  displease  the  ear  on  account  of  their 
proximity  to  certain  other  words  in  the  sentence. 

This  is  the  case  whenever  in  contiguous  words  there  are  similar  combinations  of 
sounds ;  as,  His  history  ;  I  can  candidly  say ;  I  confess  with  hwmility  the  debility  of 
my  judgment;  sterz7«  iVliteracy;  bring  gingham;  they  stood  up  upon  their  feet;  ho 
will  tci7fully  persist ;  the  man  manfully  endured. 

The  following  curious  lines  illustrate  the  point: 

O'er  the  sea  see  the  flamingo  flaming  go, 
The  lark  hie  high,  the  swallow  follow  low; 
The  small  bees  busy  at  their  threshold  old, 
And  lambs  lamenting  the  threefold  fold.* 

Alternation  of  Soft  and  Harsh  Sounds.  —  The  ear  is  pleased  with 
such  an  arrangement  of  words  that  soft  and  liquid  sounds  alternate 
in  due  proportion  with  sounds  that  are  rugged  and  comparatively 
harsh.  A  long  succession  of  words  in  which  there  are  but  few  con- 
sonants, and  those  chiefly  liquids,  gives  for  a  time  the  idea  of  light- 
ness and  grace  ;  but  if  the  peculiarity  is  pushed  too  far,  it  produces 
at  length  the  impression  of  weakness  and  eflFeminacy. 

Observe  the  multiplication  of  liquid  sounds  in  the  following  lines  from  Poe : 

And  neither  the  angels  in  heaven  above. 
Nor  the  demons  down  under  the  sea. 


*  Here  is  a  specimen  in  Latin,  —  a  witticism  on  the  famous  Synod  of  Dort: 
Dordrecti  Synodus,  nodus ;  chorus  integer,  aeger ;  conventus,  ventus ;  sessio,  str«c 
len.    Amen ! 


136  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Can  eyer  dissever  my  soul  from  the  soul 
Of  the  beautiful  Annabel  Lee. 

Contrast  these  with  the  second  of  the  following  lines : 

His  sinuous  path,  by  blazes,  wound 
Among  trunks  grouped  in  myriads  round. 

Here  the  "u"  in  '"trunks"  stands  imbedded  in  nine  consonants, 
four  of  them  moreover  being  mutes;  thus,  ngtrwnksgr. 

Perhaps  there  is  not  in  the  language  a  finer  example  of  the  alter- 
nation of  liquid  and  rugged  sounds,  than  the  following  lines  from 
Whittier: 

I  love  the  old  melodious  lays 
Which  softly  melt  the  ages  through, 

The  songs  of  Spenser's  golden  days, 
Arcadian  Sidney's  silvery  phrase. 
Sprinkling  our  noon  of  time  with  freshest  moi'ning  dew. 

What  sweeter  English  was  ever  written  than  this  description  of 
the  fall  of  Mulciber?     (P.  Lost,  I,  738-746.) 

Nor  was  his  name  unheard  or  unadored 
In  ancient  Greece ;  and  in  Ausonian  land 
Men  call  him  Mulciber;  and  how  he  fell 
From  heaven  they  fabled,  thrown  by  angry  Jove 
♦  '         Sheer  o'er  the  crystal  battlements :  from  morn 

To  noon  he  fell,  from  noon  to  dewy  eve, 
A  summer's  day;  and  with  the  setting  sun 
Dropped  from  the  zenith  like  a  falling  star, 
On  Lemnos,  the  Aegean  isle. 

2.  The  Accents  at  Convenient  Intervals. 
The  Harmony  of  a  sentence  is  promoted  by  arranging 
the  words  in  such  a  manner  that  the  accents  come  at  con- 
venient and  somewhat  measured  intervals. 

It  is  this  peculiarity  mainly  which  makes  some  prose  writings 
80  much  easier  to  read  than  others.  This  measured  style  is  very 
observable  in  Dr.  Johnson.  In  the  following  sentences,  the  accents 
come  at  measured  intervals  with  almost  the  uniformity  of  verse. 

I  shall  not  think  my  employment  useless  or  ignoble,  if,  by  my  assistance,  foreign 
nations  and  distant  ages  gain  access  to  the  propagators  of  knowledge,  and  understand 
the  teachers  of  truth ;  if  my  labors  afford  light  to  the  repositories  of  science,  and 
add  celebrity  to  Bacon,  to  Hooker,  to  Milton,  and  to  Boyle. 

Great  Care  needed.  —  If  this  style  of  composition  is  continued 
through  a  number  of  periods  in  succession,  it  becomes  monotonous 
and  wearisome.     Nothing,  indeed,  in  the  mere  form  of  expression, 


SENTENCES  —  HARMONY.  137 

requires  greater  skill  and  judgment  than  the  proper  alternation  of 
these  nicely  balanced  periods  with  sentences  of  a  different  char- 
acter. Milton's  prose  writings  furnish  some  of  the  finest  examples 
that  our  literature  affords  of  the  harmonious  and  rhythmical  arrange- 
ment of  words.     Take  the  following  oft-quoted  sentence  : 

We  shall  conduct  you  to  a  hill-side,  laborious  indeed,  at  the  first  ascent;  but  else 
60  smooth,  80  green,  so  full  of  goodly  prospects,  and  melodious  sounds,  on  every  side, 
that  the  harp  of  Orpheus  was  not  more  charming. 

If  the  sentence  just  quoted  has  the  softness  and  gentleness  of  an 
^olian  harp,  others  have  the  majestic  swell  and  sonorousness  of 
some  mighty  organ.  They  are  equally  musical,  though  the  music 
is  of  a  different  kind.     Witness  the  following  : 

Methinks  I  see  in  my  mind  a  noble  and  puissant  nation  rousing  herself  like  a 
strong  man  after  sleep,  and  shaking  his  invincible  locks ;  methinks  I  see  her  as  an 
eagle  mewing  her  mighty  youth,  and  kindling  her  undazzled  eyes  at  the  full  midday 
beam  ;  purging  and  unsealing  her  long-closed  sight  at  the  fountain  itself  of  heavenly 
radiance ;  while  the  whole  noise  of  timorous  and  flocking  birds,  with  those  also  that 
love  the  twilight,  flutter  about,  amazed  at  what  she  means ! 

Contrast  these  passages  with  the  following  from  Tillotson: 

This  discourse  concerning  the  easiness  of  God's  commands,  does,  all  along,  sup- 
pose and  acknowledge  the  difliculties  of  the  first  entrance  upon  a  religious  course ; 
except  only  in  those  persons  who  have  had  the  happiness  to  be  trained  up  to  religion 
by  the  easy  and  insensible  degrees  of  a  pious  and  virtuous  education. 

3.  Cadence  at  the  Close. 

The  Harmony  of  a  sentence  is  promoted  by  a  due  atten- 
tion to  the  cadence  at  the  close. 

Why  Important.  —  It  is  important  to  leave  upon  the  ear,  at  the 
close  of  a  sentence,  a  sound  both  agreeable  in  itself,  and  suited  to 
the  general  impression  which  we  wish  to  make.  The  words  and 
clauses  therefore  should  be  so  marshalled  that  something  pleasing 
and  sonorous  may  come  in  at  the  end. 

The  following  passage  from  "The  Wife,"  by  Washington  Irving, 
well  illustrates  both  this  rule  and  the  preceding : 

As  the  vine,  which  has  long  twined  its  graceful  foliage  about  the  oak,  and  been 
lifted  by  it  into  sunshine,  will,  when  the  hardy  plant  is  rifted  by  the  thunderbolt, 
cling  round  it  with  its  caressing  tendrils,  and  bind  up  its  shattered  boughs ;  so  is  it 
beautifully  ordered  by  Providence,  that  woman,  who  is  the  mere  dependant  and  orna- 
ment of  man  in  his  happier  hours,  should  be  his  stay  and  solace  when  smitten  with 
sudden  calamity ;  winding  herself  into  the  rugged  recesses  of  his  nature,  tenderly 
supporting  the  drooping  head,  and  binding  up  the  broken  heart. 


138  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

In  this  long  sentence,  the  pauses  or  rests  are  so  adjusted  that  the 
voice  passes  with  entire  ease  from  point  to  point,  while  in  the  last 
line  the  whole  construction  is  brought  to  a  most  graceful  and  pleas- 
ing conclusion. 

Small  TJnaccented  Words  at  the  End.  —  Any  marked  falling  off  in 
sonorousness  at  the  end  is  displeasing  to  the  ear.  For  this  reason, 
we  should  avoid  closing  a  sentence  with  a  small  unaccented  word. 
Such  a  termination  is  injurious  to  harmony  as  well  as  to  strength. 

"  It  is  a  mystery  which  avc  firmly  believe  the  truth  of,  and  humbly  adore  the  depth 
of."  Change  it  thus:  "It  is  a  mystery,  the  truth  of  which  we  firmly  believe,  and  the 
depth  of  which  we  humbly  adore." 

An  Accent  Needed  near  the  End.  —  It  seems  to  hold  in  general,  in 
our  language,  that,  in  order  to  a  musical  close,  either  the  last  sylla- 
ble, or  the  last  but  one,  should  have  the  accent.  Hence  words 
which  have  the  accent  far  removed  from  the  end,  such  as  c6ntrary, 
aMitory,  peremptorily,  &c.,  are,  so  far  as  the  music  is  concerned, 
unsuited  for  the  close  of  a  sentence.  To  say,  "The  order  was  given 
peremptorily,"  does  not  end  as  agreeably  to  the  ear  as  to  say,  "The 
order  was  given  in  a  peremptory  manner." 

4.  Adapting  the  Sound  to  the  Senssi 

The  Harmony  of  a  sentence  is  promoted  by  adapting  th^e 
sound  to  the  sense. 

Character  of  this  Harmony.  — The  Harmony  which  arises  from  this 
source  is  of  a  much  higher  kind  than  that  which  arises  from  mere 
pleasantness  of  sound.  This  higher  kind  of*  harmony  may  exist 
where  there  are  sounds  which  in  themselves  are  harsh  and  grating. 
This  very  ruggedness  of  sound  may  in  some  cases  be  a  part  of  the 
harmony.  The  author  may  desire  to  convey  the  idea  of  something 
disagreeable  and  horrid,  in  which  case  the  harshness  of  the  words 
is  in  perfect  consonance  with  the  thought,  and  helps  the  effect.  The 
opening  of  Hell-gates,  in  Paradise  Lost,  is  often  quoted  in  illustra- 
tion of  this  point. 

On  a  sudden  open  fly 
"Witli  impetuous  recoil  and  jarring  sound 
The  infernal  doors,  and  on  their  hinges  grate  ' 

Harsh  thunder,  that  the  lowest  bottom  shook 
Of  Erebus. 

Greater  Variety  Admissible.  —  In  seeking,  therefore,  that  kind  of 
harmony  which  consists  in  adapting  the  sound  to  the  sense,  a  great 


SENTENCES  —  HARMONY.  139 

rariety  of  words  is  admissible.  For  grave  and  serious  ideas  we 
naturally  use  words  whose  sounds  are  slow  and  measured.  Stern 
and  impetuous  thoughts  are  expressed  by  words  which  are  harsh 
and  discordant.  Gentle  and  benignant  feelings,  on  the  other  hand, 
require  soft  and  flowing  words.  By  selecting  words  of  different 
so«nds,  a  writer  may  indicate  many  varieties  of  motion,  as  swift  or 
slow,  easy  or  difficult,  and  may  even  imitate  particular  noises,  as 
when  we  speak  of  the  hum  of  the  bee,  the  hiss  of  the  serpent,  the 
whistling  of  the  wind,  the  crash  of  the  falling  tree. 

Notice  how  huge  size  and  unwieldiness  are  expressed  by  the  choice 
of  words  in  the  following  passages  from  Milton: 

Part,  huge  of  bulk, 

Wallowing,  unwieldy,  enormous  in  their  gait, 

Tempest  the  ocean- 
Scarce  from  his  mould 

Behemoth,  biggest  born  of  earth,  upheaved 

Hia  vastness. 

The  labor  of  Sisyphus  is  aptly  imitated  by  Pope  in  the^ following 
lines,  particularly  in  the  last : 

With  many  a  weary  step,  and  many  a  groan. 
Up  the  Aigh  Aill  ^e  leaves  a  Auge  round  stone. 

The  imitation  here  is  rendered  more  effective  by  the  artifice  of  the 
continued  repetition  of  the  aspirate. 

The  felling  of  timber  is  thus  described,  in  words  whose  sound  is 
clearly  an  echo  of  the  sense : 

Deep-echoing  groan  the  thickets  brown. 

Then  rustling,  crackling,  crashing,  thunder  down. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  examples  of  harmony  produced  by  the 
adaptation  of  the  sound  to  the  sense,  is  Poe's  well-known  poem  of 
the  "Bells."  The  poem  is  too  familiar  to  need  quotation.  Tennyson's 
♦'  Bugle  Song  "  is  another  exquisite  instance. 

Apart  from  the  mere  sound  of  the  words,  an  imitative  harmony 
may  be  produced  in  poetry  by  the  rhythm.  Thus  the  galloping  of  a 
horse  is  imitated  in  the  following : 

At  each  bound  he  could  feel  his  scabbard  of  steel 
Smiting  his  stallion's  flanks. —  Longfdhw. 

A  charge  of  cavalry  is  imitated  in  the  following : 

.^  Forward!  break  cover! 

Ride  through  them!  ride  over 

Them!  baptize  the  clover, 

With  blood  aa  with  dew!  —  Bolcer. 


140  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Part  of  the  eflfect  of  haste  in  the  last  passage  is  produced  by  what 
musicians  call  the  slur  between  ''over"  and  "them,"  and  between 
"clover"  and  "with." 

Almost  every  variety  of  warlike  sound  is  imitated  in  these  lines : 

Hark  to  tfie  brazen  blare  of  the  bugle ! 

Hark  to  the  rattling  clatter  of  the  drums, 

The  measured  tread  of  the  steel-clad  footmen  I 

Hark  to  the  laboring  horses'  breath, 

Painfully  tugging  the  harnessed  cannon ; 

The  shrill,  sharp  clink  of  the  warriors'  swords, 

As  their  chargers  bound  when  the  trumpets  sound 

Tlieir  alarums  through  the  echoing  mountains!  —  Boker. 

How  very  different  the  following: 

And  far  below  the  Roundheads  rode, 
And  hummed  a  surly  hymn. —  Tennyson. 


Miscellaneous  Examples  on  the  Construction  of  Sentences. 

[Point  out  whatever  is  faulty  in  any  of  these  sentences,  and  reconstruct  the  sentences 
80  as  to  avoid  the  fault.] 

1.  In  nature,  the  foundation  of  order  is  the  plan  to  which  every- 
thing conforms,  and  all  in  perfect  harmony. 

2.  He  is  a  benefactor  who  from  scattered  fragments  constructs  a 
work,  clear  in  outline,  and  symmetrical,  to  endure  through  the  ages. 

3.  Poverty  habitually  comes  in  like  an  armed  man,  and  misery  and 
want  unalleviated,  and  sometimes  apparently  unperceived,  rule  with 
absolute  dominion  in  the  place.    * 

4.  A  man  very  much  under  the  influence  of  liquor,  with  a  pair  of 
shad,  was  making  his  way  under  difficulties  to  the  depot  on  Saturday. 

5.  To  this  accomplished  and  unfortunate  lady,  Anne  Boleyn,  whose 
beauty  attracted  the  fatal  notice,  but  could  not  fix  the  brutal  passion 
of  the  king,  who  "  spared  neither  man  in  his  wrath  nor  woman  in  his 
lust,"  is  sometimes  ascribed  the  following  touching  poem,  though 
neither  Mr,  Walton  nor  Mr.  Ritson  think  justly. 

6.  This  beautiful  and  highly  accomplished  woman,  Mary  Queen 
of  Scots,  whose  feminine  character  ill  fitted  her  for  the  throne  of  a 
rude  nation  in  the  most  agitated  period  of  its  history,  and  who  had 
the  misfortune  to  live  among  enemies  paid  to  slander  her,  while  none 
dared  to  defend  her  against  a  haughty,  powerful  rival,  that  united 
to  a  woman's  jealousy  of  her  superior  claims,  the  sternest  policies  of 
unscrupulous  ambition,  is  now  seldom  named  without  me/ancholy 
interest,  and  a  wish  to  forget  her  faults  in  the  trials  of  her  circum- 
stances. 


SENTENCES  —  MISCELLANEOUS   EXAMPLES.        141 

7.  The  French  being  her  tongue  from  infancy,  she  preferred  to 
write  in  it;  and,  though  not  strictly  within  the  plan  of  our  work,  we 
subjoin  a  copy  of  verses  written  during  her  imprisonment  in  Foth- 
eringay  Castle,  with  a  Latin  hymn,  the  musical  cadence  of  which 
has  been  greatly  admired,  "  composed  and  repeated  "  by  her  the  day 
before  the  execution. 

8.  She  added  to  unusual  learning  much  talent  as  a  painter,  and 
according  to  her  admiring  contemporaries,  as  a  poetical  writer. 

9.  She  wrote,  among  other  poems,  a  spirited  defence  of  her  sex,  in 
answer  to  Pope's  Characters  of  Women,  which  Duncombe  praises  in 
his  Feminead. 

10.  She  was  fond,  however,  of  literary  society,  as  is  shown  by  her 
friendship  for  Mrs.  Rowe,  (she  was  the  authoress  of  the  letter  signed 
Cleora  in  Mrs.  R.'s  collection) ;  Thomson,  whom  she  kindly  patron- 
ized, (who  dedicated  to  her  the  first  edition  of  his  Spring) ;  Dr.  Watts 
(who  dedicated  to  her  his  Miscellaneous  Thoughts  in  Prose  and 
Verse)  ;  and  Shenstone  (who  addressed  to  her  his  Ode  on  Rural 
Elegance). 

11.  Mrs.  Greville  (whose  maiden  name  was  Fanny  McCartney), 
wife  of  Fulke  Greville,  author  of  Maxims,  Characters,  &c.,  1756, 
wrote,  about  1763,  her  Prayer  for  Indifference,  which  was  very 
popular,  and  provoked  several  clever  replies,  the  best  being  by  the 

Countess  of  C ,  supposed  to  be  Isabella,  Countess  of  Carlisle,  who 

died  1793. 

12.  Mrs.  Crewe  was.  the  daughter  of  Mr^s.  Greville  ;  and  her  second 
son,  Captain  William  Fulke  Greville,  died  at  Dover  in  1837,  aged  87, 
from  which  we  infer  that  her  marriage  was  antecedent  to  1749, 

13.  She  went  upon  the  stage,  for  which  she  had  long  before  an 
inclination,  to  gain  a  support. 

14.  Piozzi  died  in  1809,  but  in  1819-20  his  sprightly  widow 
showed,  not  only  that  her  physical  elasticity  was  preserved,  by  dan- 
cing with  great  spirit  at  public  balls,  but  that  her  sensibilities  were 
yet  warm,  by  falling  in  love  with  Conway,  the  handsome  actor. 

15.  In  1776,  she  printed  Sir  Eldred  of  the  Bower,  a  ballad,  and  a 
little  poem,  in  imitation  of  Ovid's  Metamorphoses,  on  a  rock  in  Somer- 
setshire, from  which  issues  a  red  stream,  called  The  Bleeding  Rock, 
which  had  been  written  some  years  before. 

16.  This  well-known  lady,  the  widow  of  a  Presbyterian  clergyman 
of  Inverness-shire,  Scotland,  whose  Letters  from  |the  Mountains  have 
been  so  generally  and  universally  admired,  published  a  volume  of 
poems  in  1801,  which  shows  the  same  talenta  that  made  her  descrip* 
tiong  of  scenery  so  graphic  and  delightful. 

13  10 


142  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

17.  The  editor  has  far  greater  pleasure  in  speaking  of  her  writ- 
ings, as  they  struck  his  youthful  fancy,  than  with  the  cool  judgment 
of  more  mature  years. 

18.  Bereaved  by  death  of  one  to  whom  her  heart  was  given,  she 
became  in  an  unpropitious  hour  the  wife  of  the  Hon.  George  Chap- 
pel  Norton,  who  proved  himself  utterly  unworthy  of  having  com- 
mitted to  him  the  child  of  beauty,  genius,  and  generous  feeling, 
whom  he  has  persecuted  with  the  basest  accusations  and  untiring 
malignity. 

19.  We  may  recur  to  an  earlier  period,  when  the  crown  was  devis- 
able by  will  in  England,  or  when  at  least  the  succession  was  settled 
in  accordance  with  the  desires  of  a  dying  sovereign,  for  some  kind 
of  parallel. 

20.  He  is  a  public  benefactor  who  from  scattered  fragments  con- 
structs a  work  clear  in  outline  and  symmetrical,  to  endure  through 
ages. 

21.  Rich  or  poor  you  have  always  been  to  me  a  true  friend. 

22.-  Is  it  nothing  to  be  obliged  to  toil  almost  in  the  menial  con- 
cerns of  his  wretched  habitation  ? 

23.  My  confidence  in  the  people  governing  is  unlimited  ;  my  con- 
fidence in  the  people  governed  is  infinitesimal. 

24.  Everybody  when  they  buy  want  the  best. 

25.  I  am  sure  there  was  a  case  in  the  day  before  yesterday's  paper, 
extracted  from  one  of  the  French  newspapers,  about  a  journeyman 
shoemaker  who  was  jealous  of  a  young  girl  in  an  adjoining  village, 
because  she  would  not  shut  herself  up  in  an  air-tight  three-pair  of 
stairs,  and  charcoal  herself  to  death  with  him ;  and  who  went  and 
hid  himself  in  a  wood  with  a  sharp-pointed  knife  ;  and  rushed  out 
as  she  passed  by  with  a  few  friends,  and  killed  himself  first,  and 
then  all  the  friends,  and  then  her — no,  killed  all  the  friends  first, 
and  then  herself,  and  then  himself — which  was  quite  frightful  to 
think  of. 

26.  Such  a  man  should  not  be  tolerated  in  office, *for  one  who  re- 
ceives bribes  for  the  administration  of  justice  can  hardly  be  thought 
at  all  times  to  keep  in  mind  what  justice  means,  nor  one  who  winks 
at  wrong-doing  to  be  free  from  all  taint  of  misdemeanor  himself. 

27.  Owing  to  an  obstacle  on  the  track,  and  the  badness  of  the 
weather,  the  train  was  delayed,  and  as  John  did  not  reach  home  in 
time  to  attend  the  funeral,  they  concluded  to  postpone  it. 

28.  My  son  John  rode  down  to  Colchester,  mounted  upon  the  old 
bay  horse.  Shying  at  a  white  gate,  he  stumbled  and  cast  a  shoe, 
and  John  was  detained  an  hour  at  the  smithy. 


SENTENCES  —  MISCELLANEOUS   EXAMPLES.        14S 

29.  The  English  hate  frogs,  but  the  French  love  frogs  and  hate 
the  English,  and  cut  off  their  hind  legs  and  consider  them  a  great 
delicacy. 

30.  John  Brown,  his  wife,  baby,  and  dog,  came  up  to  town  to  see 
the  fair,  and  passing  through  the  streets  he  amused  himself  by  bark- 
ing at  every  unprotected  female  he  met. 

31.  The  moon  is  situated  about  two  hundred  and  forty  thousand 
miles  from  the  earth,  and  is  supposed  to  be  an  opaque  body  shining 
only  by  the  reflection  of  the  rays  passing  from  the  sun,  and  it  influ- 
ences the  waters  of  the  earth  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  a  tidal 
wave  once  in  24  hours. 

32.  A  man  walked  down  the  street,  followed  by  a  little  dog,  sport- 
ing a  green  neck-tie  and  patent  leather  boots. 

33.  He  came  into  church  with  his  wife,  wearing  a  full  dress  uni- 
form of  the  cavalry  regiment  then  stationed  in  the  neighborhood. 

34.  The  man  who  sat  writing  with  a  Roman  nose  was  ordered  to 
leave  the  room. 

35.  The  old  astronomers  were  free  to  invent  whatever  theories 
they  pleased  as  to  the  scale  on  which  the  sidereal  scheme  is  con- 
structed, since  if  the  earth  were  at  rest  we  could  never  knew  how 
far  the  stars  were  from  us,  and  it  was  only  when  the  earth  was  set 
free  by  Copernicus  from  the  imaginary  chain  which  had  oeen  con- 
ceived as  holding  it  in  the  centre  of  the  universe,  that  it  became 
possible  to  form  any  conception  of  the  distances  at  which  the  stars 
lie  from  us. 

36.  By  reason  of  the  traces  of  the  awful  earthquake  of  1812,  which 
did  its  work  with  suddenness,  almost  as  appalling  as  that  which 
destroyed  Manilla,  the  environs  of  the  capital  are  sadly  interesting. 

37.  Well,  sir,  I  (who  am  a  very  quiet,  and,  I  believe,  inoffensive 
man,  whose  only  wish  in  life  is  to  be  allowed  to  sit  in  a  corner,  out 
of  other  people's  way,  and  read  books,)  I  had  occasion  to  drive 
across  Hyde  Park  on  the  afternoon  of  Tuesday,  the  day  after  the 
storm,  in  company  with  my  wife,  who,  as  is  her  wont,  was  giving 
me,  who  am  somewhat  infirm  of  foot,  the  benefit  of  a  lift  to  my  club 
—  a  literary  club,  as  harmless  and  colorless  as  myself,  and  when 
fairly  in  the  park  I  found  that,  though  the  great  storm  was  over,  the 
waves  were  very  far  from  gone  down :  angry  little  surface- waves, 
different  enough  from  the  grand  natural  heaving  of  the  true  popular 
sea. 

38.  By  the  time  I  had  taken  five  bottles,  I  found  myself  completely 
cured,  after  having  been  brought  so  near  to  the  gate  of  death,  by 
means  of  your  invaluable  medicine. 


144  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

39.  An  extensive  view  is  presented  from  the  fourth  story  of  the 
Delaware  River. 

40.  His  remains  were  committed  to  that  bourne  whence  no  travel- 
ler returns,  attended  by  his  family. 

41.  If  the  gentleman  who  keeps  a  store  in  Cedar  Street,  with  a 
red  head,  will  return  the  umbrella  he  borrowed  from  a  lady,  with  an 
ivory  handle,  he  will  hear  of  something  to  his  advantage. 

42.  Wanted  a  groom  to  take  charge  of  two  horses  of  a  serious 
turn  of  mind. 

43.  He  walked  toward  the  table  and  took  up  his  hat  and  bade 
adieu  to  his  host  and  took  his  departure. 

44.  As  I  was  on  the  express  train,  I  watched  the  conductor  pass- 
ing through  the  cars,  collecting  the  tickets  from  the  way  passengers, 
and  punching  the  through  ones. 

'     45.  All  persons  must  detest  traitors  who  possess  any  love  of  coun- 
try whatever. 

46.  John  is  the  best  boy  in  the  village  that  attends  the  academy. 

47.  The  books  treat  of  trees  that  are  on  the  fourth  shelf. 

48.  Her  apron  was  torn  by  a  little  dog,  that  was  trimmed  with 
pink  and  white  braid. 

49.  William  Penn  gave  this  advice  to  his  children :  Let  your  in- 
dustry and  parsimony  go  no  further  than  for  a  sufficiency  for  life, 
and  to  make  a  provision  for  your  children,  and  that  in  moderation, 
If  the  Lord  gives  you  any. 

50.  Why,  our  cook  (she  's  fifty,  if  she 's  a  day)  got  a  bonnet  just 
like  mine,  (the  materials  were  cheaper,  but  the  effect  was  the  same,) 
and  had  the  impertinence  (servants  have  no  idea  of  their  place  in 
this  country)  to  wear  it  before  my  face. 

51.  If  some  men,  according  to  the  fashionable  metaphor,  are 
square,  while  others  are  round,  the  Right  Hon.  Robert  Lowe  must 
be  described  as  multangular,  with  whom  it  is  not  easy  to  live  com- 
fortably and  at  peace. 

52.  Mrs.  Ingram,  a  most  estimable  lady,  widow  of  the  late  pro- 
prietor, who  was  a  member  from  Boston,  and  died  last  year,  is  the 
sole  owner  of  the  Illustrated  London  News. 

53.  It  was  midnight  —  the  very  hour  at  which  (with  a  punctuality 
few  of  them  have  exhibited  in  the  flesh)  spirits  invariably  revisit 
(what  can  be  the  attraction  in  many  cases?)  their  former  abodes. 

54.  The  heavenly  bodies  are  in  motion  perpetually. 

55.  Not  only  did  he  find  her  busy,  but  pleased  and  happy  ever. 

56.  I  have  done  that  which  I  have  spoken  to  thee  of. 

67.  Poverty  wants  some  things ;  the  avaricious  want  all  things. 


SENTENCES  -—MISCELLANEOUS   EXAMPLES.        146 

68.  The  public  is  interested  in  knowing  who  is  the  rascal,  as  he 
charges,  who  is  drawing  thousands  of  dollars  in  sinecures  from  the 
public  purse. 

59.  I  move  the  appointment  of  a  committee  to  report  what  altera- 
tions are  necessary  to  the  next  General  Assembly. 

60.  They  expect  the  overthrow  of  all  the  old  traditions  of  a  race, 
whose  religion,  customs,  and  laws  run  from  time  immemorial,  in  the 
twinkling  of  an  eye. 

61.  The  reformation  of  John  WickliflFe,  which  had  begun  just 
before  he  ascended  the  throne,  was,  during  his  reign,  preparing  the 
way  for  religious  revolutions  in  the  future. 

62.  Edward  I.  had  in  his  youth  rescued  the  crown  from  the  pre- 
sumptuous Leicester,  and  had  replaced  it  upon  the  head  of  his  weak 
but  well-meaning  father. 

63.  Henry  Beaufort,  the  illegitimate  brother  of  Bolingbroke,  after- 
wards the  stern  and  cruel  judge  by  whose  sentence  the  Maid  of 
Orleans  was  brought  to  an  unworthy  death,  became  the  tutor  of  the 
prince. 

64.  When  young  Henry  was  eleven  years  of  age,  in  the  year  before 
the  revolution  which  brought  his  father  to  the  throne,  Beaufort,  who 
had  been  made  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford,  took  him 
under  his  care  at  Queen's  College. 

65.  Although  the  king  treated  his  kinsman  with  much  courtesy,  he 
evidently  regarded  him  as  a  pledge  of  safety. 

66.  Henry  was  conveyed  by  the  king's  order  to  the  castle  of 
Tryon,  where  he  and  his  cousin,  young  Humphrey,  Duke  of  Glouces- 
ter, were  put  in  easy  confinement. 

67.  He  was  shocked  that  one  who  had  in  every  way  sought  his 
love  by  gentle  kindness,  should  be  deprived  of  power  and  liberty  by 
his  own  nearest  kinsman. 

68.  Yet  it  was  natural  for  him  to  conceal  whatever  sadness  he 
might  entertain  on  account  of  the  misfortune  of  his  friend,  in  the 
brilliant  scenes  of  which  he  was  the  principal  actor. 

69.  His  presence  in  company  with  the  new  king,  gave  additional 
^clat  to  the  usurpation ;  for  he  was  looked  upon  as  innocent  of  the 
stain,  and  his  youth  and  beauty  elicited  the  enthusiasm  of  the  pop- 
ulace, who  were  now  to  regard  him  as  their  future  monarch. 

70.  Both  body  and  mind  were  patient  under  hardships,  whether 
voluntary  or  under  necessity  endured. 

71.  He  was  impatient,  in  the  generosity  of  his  nature,  of  that 
praise  which  sought  him  out  in  injustice  of  those  who  had  really 
triumphed. 

13* 


146  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORIC. 

72.  No  man  went  from  his  presence  with  anger  in  his  breast. 

73.  The  intimacy  of  a  prince  of  the  blood  royal  with  common  per- 
sons would  be  noticed  enough  to  build  such  traditions  upon,  and  we 
may  be  sure,  that  had  Henry  really  been  guilty  of  drunkenness, 
burglary,  and  carousing,  we  should  have  had  the  fact  duly  authen- 
ticated by  the  gossiping  chroniclers  of  the  day. 

74.  One  of  the  most  extraordinary  men  of  that,  perhaps  of  any 
age,  appeared  to  annoy  Henry  the  Fourth,  from  this  time  almost  to 
the  day  of  his  death.  A  rebellion  headed  by  him,  took  its  rise,  to 
keep  which  in  abeyance  drained  the  resources  of  England,  and 
which  at  times  absolutely  threatened  the  integrity  of  the  throne. 

75.  Owen  himself  seems  to  have  in  a  manner  retired  from  the 
command,  and  to  have  delegated  his  authority  to  a  brave  lieutenant, 
Rees  ap  Grifi&th,  who  was  not,  however,  inclined  to  resume  that  rash 
mode  of  warfare  which  had  made  Owen  so  famed  a  leader. 

76.  The  king  grew  prematurely  old  under  the  unusual  weight  of 
his  cares,  and  the  anxieties  which  would  naturally  depress  one  who 
held  his  crown  by  an  uncertain  tenure. 

77.  Chivalry  thus  illustrated  its  most  stately  adornments,  and  the 
barbarities  of  which  its  concomitants  almost  compel  admiration. 

78.  Thus  Pedro  threw  away  the  very  friendship  without  which 
he  would  still  have  been  an  exile,  the  alienation  of  which  left  him 
exposed  without  defence  to  that  resistless  home  party,  which  still 
clung  to  his  brother  Henry. 

79.  An  opportunity  very  soon  presented  itself,  and  we  arrive  at 
that  romantic  episode  in  the  history  of  those  times,  in  which  were 
cast  the  obtrusive  events  of  John  of  Gaunt's  career,  and  which  have 
been  most  efficacious  to  preserve  his  name  and  deeds  to  later  genera- 
tions. 

80.  Hume  says  that  John  of  Gaunt  was  not  even  enterprising ; 
but  he  must  mean  that  he  was  not  ambitious  of  the  crown,  nor  of 
the  direction  of  the  government ;  for  his  life  was  one  of  almost  cease- 
less activity. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Figures. 

Belation  of  the  Subject  to  those  which  precede,  — In  the  expression 
of  thought,  it  is  the  business  of  the  writer  or  the  speaker,  j&rst  to 
obtain  the  words  needed,  and  then  to  arrange  them  into  completed 
expressions.  These  two  points  have  been  already  discussed  in  the 
chapters  on  Diction  and  Sentences.  Words  are  the  brick  and  mortar, 
sentences  are  the  finished  walls,  of  the  mental  fabric.  But  Rhetoric, 
no  less  than  architecture,  needs  something  more  than  bare  walls.  It 
has,  equally  with  the  sister  art,  its  arabesques  and  mosaics,  its  arches 
and  columns,  its  lights  and  shadows;  its  curious  tracery,  its  lines  of 
grace  and  beauty,  —  its  appeal,  in  short,  to  the  taste  and  the  imagina- 
tion, as  well  as  to  the  understanding.  We  wish,  in  other  words,  not 
only  to  express  our  meaning,  but  to  express  it  in  forms  which  will 
make  it  moVe  agreeable  and  attractive.  In  natural  order,  therefore, 
the  next  subject  in  Rhetoric,  after  Diction  and  Sentences,  is  the 
discussion  of  the  various  means  by  which  we  add  to  discourse  graces 
and  attractions  beyond  those  derived  from  the  bare  expression  of 
thought.  Among  these  means  none  are  more  conspicuous  than  those 
known  as  Figures.  To  these,  therefore,  we  shall  now  address 
ourselves. 

Definition  of  Figure.— A  Figure,  in  Rhetoric,  is  some 
deviation  from  the  plain  and  ordinary  mode  of  expression, 
with  a  view  of  making  the  meaning  more  effective. 

An,  Example.  —  If  it  is  said,  "  A  good  man  enjoys  comfort  ip  the  midst  of  adversity," 
the  thought  is  expressed  in  the  simplest  manner  possible.  But  if  we  say,  "To  the 
upright  there  ariseth  light  in  darkness,"  the  same  sentiment  is  expressed  in  a  figura- 
tive style.  There  is  a  deviation  from  the  plain  and  simple  expression.  Light  is  put 
in  place  of  comfort,  darkness  in  place  of  adversity,  and  thi^  change  in  the  mode  of 
expression  makes  the  idea  more  vivitj. 

147 


148  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Another  Example.  —  To  say,  "It  is  impossible  to  explore  the  Divine  nature 
fully  by  any  search  we  can  make,"  is  to  utter  a  simple  proposition.  But  when  we 
Bay,  " Canst  thou,  by  searching,  find  out  God?  Canst  thou  find  out  the  Almighty 
to  perfection?  It  is  high  as  heaven,  what  canst  thou  do?  deeper  than  hell,  what 
canst  thou  know  ? "  wo  introduce  a  figure.  Not  only  the  proposition  is  expressed, 
but  admiration  and  astonishment  are  expressed  with  it,  and  the  meaning  is  made  in 
every  way  more  effective. 

Another  Example.  —  If  we  say,  "That  is  strange,"  we  use  the  plain,  ordi- 
nary mode  of  stating  a  fact.  But  if  we  say,  "  IIow  strange  that  is  !  "  the  expression 
is  changed  from  a  mere  assertion  to  an  exclamation  of  surprise.  It  is  therefore  a 
figure,  a  form  of  speech  difierent  from  the  ordinary  mode  of  expression. 

An  Example  of  a  Different  Kind.  —  In  the  sentence,  "Now  is  the 
vrinter  of  our  discontent,"  there  is  a  figure,  but  it  is  of  another  kind.  The  form  of 
the  expression  is  not  changed,  but  one  of  the  words,  "  winter,"  is  turned  from  its 
literal  meaning,  a  season  of  the  year,  and  is  made  to  signify  a  condition  of  the  human 
feelings.  This  changing  or  turning  away  of  a  word  from  its  literal  meaning  is  called 
a  Trope,  from  the  Greek  word  tropos  (rporroj),  which  means  a  turning. 


Figures  and  Tropes. — The  ancients  observed  carefully 
the  distinction  between  Figures  and  Tropes.  But  at  present 
the  one  term,  Figure,  is  used  to  cover  the  whole  subject,  and 
to  mean  any  deviation  from  the  plain  and  ordinary  mode 
of  expression,  whether  in  the  form  of  the  sentence,  or  in 
the  meaning  of  a  particular  word. 

Figures  not  Unnatural.  —  Though  Figures  are  thus  some  deviation 
from  the  ordinary  mode  of  expression,  it  does  not  follow  that  they 
are  forced  or  unnatural.  Figures  are  not  the  inventions  of  rhetori- 
cians, any  more  than  the  laws  of  language  are  the  inventions  of 
grammarians.  As  writers  on  grammar  have  observed  how  men 
speak,  and  from  this  have  drawn  the  rules  of  speech,  so  writers  on 
rhetoric  have  noticed  how  men  depart  from  the  plain  and  ordinary 
mode  of  expression  when  they  wish  to  give  special  force  or  vivid- 
ness to  their  meaning,  and  from  this  fact  the  character  and  rules  for 
such  figurative  expressions  have  been  derived.  The  most  illiterate 
men,  as  well  as  the  most  learned,  speak  in  figures.  No  races,  in 
fact,  are  so  much  addicted  to  the  use  of  figurative  language  as  the 
pemi-barbarous  and  the  savage.  Whenever  the  imaginations  of  the 
multitude  are  awakened,  or  their  passions  inflamed,  they  pour  forth 
their  feelings  in  a  torrent  of  figures.  It  is  rare,  indeed,  t]iat  any 
one,  learned  or  unlearned,  civilized  or  savage,  in  a  composed  or  in 
an  excited  state  of  mind,  discourses  for  any  length  of  time  without 
the  use  of  figures.     Figurative  expressions  are  as  important  to  the 


FIGURES.  149 

agreeableness  of  discourse  as  are  color  and  form  to  that  of  the  land- 
scape. 

Origin  of  Figures.  —  The  first  source  of  figures  is  the  bar- 
renness of  language. 

Explanation.  —  In  the  first  attempts  to  use  language,  men  would 
begin  with  giving  names  to  the  different  objects  with  which  they 
became  acquainted.  As  the  ideas  of  men  multiplied,  their  stock  of 
names  and  words  would  be  enlarged.  But  for  this  infinite  variety 
of  ideas  and  objects  in  the  world,  no  language  would  be  adequate. 
Any  language  would  become  unmanageable  whick  should  undertake 
to  supply  a  separate  word  for  every  separate  idea.  Men  therefore 
would  seek  to  abridge  the  labor  of  inventing  and  remembering  such 
an  infinite  number  of  words.  One  word,  which  had  been  invented 
to  express  some  particular  idea  or  object,  would  be  used  to  express 
some  other  idea  or  object  to  which  it  was  imagined  to  bear  a  like- 


Sxample.  —  The  -word  dull  in  its  primary  meaning  applies  to  an  instrument 
having  an  edge.  But  when  we  speak  of  an  essay  as  being  "dull,"  we  imagine  the 
mental  effect  of  such  a  composition  to  be  similar  to  the  material  effect  of  an  edged 
tool  that  is  dull.  So,  instead  of  making  a  new  word,  we  use  the  old  word  in  a  new 
and  changed  sense.  This  change  ig  called  a  figure.  A  dull  knife  is  literal.  A  dull 
essay  is  figuratire.  In  this  manner  a  large  number  of  figurative  uses  of  words  hare 
arisen.  Mental  operations  especially  are  most  commonly  expressed  by  werds  derived 
from  sensible  objects.  Thus  we  speak  of  a  piercing  judgment,  a  clear  head,  a  soft 
heart ;  of  one  inflamed  by  anger,  warmed  by  love,  swelled  with  pride,  melted  with  pity, 
and  so  on. 

Second  Source.  —  The  other  and  indeed  the  principal 
source  of  figures  is  the  pleasure  which  they  give. 

Explanation.  -^  In  this  case  we  use  figures,  not  because  of  the  bar- 
renness of  language,  but  because  the  figurative  expression  is  more 
agreeable  than  the  literal  one.  We  have  words  already  at  our  com- 
mand for  expressing  the  plain,  simple  meaning ;  but  we  are  more 
pleased  with  some  other  expression  which,  besides  the  primary  and 
literal  meaning,  conveys  some  additional  idea  of  an  agreeable  char- 
acter. 

ICxamples. — Thus  the  sun  becomes  "the  powerful  king  of  day,"  youth  is  called 
"the  morning  of  life,"  "gray  hairs"  means  old  age,  the  "sceptre"  means  the  fOyal 
authority,  and  so  on. 

Names  of  the  Figures.  —  The  most  common  figures  are 


160  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Simile,  Metaphor,  Allegory,  Antithesis,  Epigram,  Metonymy, 
Synecdoche,  Interrogation,  Exclamation,  Apostrophe,  Per- 
sonification, Hyperbole,  Irony,  Climax. 

I.    SIMILE. 

Simile,  or  Comparison,  consists  in  formally  likening  one 
thing  to  another. 

Sx ample 8.  — The  condemnation  of  Socrates  took  him  away  in  his  full  grandeur 

and  glory,  like  the  setting  of  a  tropical  sun. 

True  ease  in  writing  comes  from  art,  not  chance, 
As  those  move  easiest  who  have  learnt  to  dance. 

I  have  ventured. 
Like  little  wanton  boys  that  swim  on  bladders, 
This  many  summers  in  a  sea  of  glory. 

Why  Similes  Please.  — Similes  are  a  source  of  pleasure  to  the  mind 
on  several  accounts : 

1.  First,  we  are  so  constituted  that  we  naturally  are  pleased  in 
comparing  objects  with  one  another,  and  tracing  the  points  of  like- 
ness or  of  unlikeness  between  them.  This  habit  of  comparison  is 
common  to  all  persons.  Even  children  take  delight  in  it,  as  soon  as 
they  are  capable  of  taking  distinct  notice  of  objects.  The  mere  fact 
of  there  being  a  likeness  gives,  when  observed,  a  pleasure  to  the 
mind. 

2.  Secondly,  a  simile  usually  makes  the  principal  object  plainer, 
or  gives  it  a  stronger  impression  on  the  mind,  and  on  this  account  is 
a  source  of  additional  pleasure.  An  author,  wishing  to  say  that  the 
memory  of  a  certain  person  is  both  quick  and  retentive,  makes  the 
idea  clearer  and  more  forcible,  and  at  the  same  time  more  agreeable 
to  the  reader,  by  expressing  the  thought  thus:  '*  His  memory  is  like 
wax  to  receive  impressions,  and  like  marble  to  retain  them." 

3.  Thirdly,  by  a  skilful  use  of  simile,  the  principal  object  may  be 
embellished  and  made  more  agreeable  by  being  associated  with 
goraething  of  a  superior  character  —  something  splendid,  graceful, 
refined,  dignified,  or  grand,  according  to  the  occasion.  Shakspeare 
says  of  a  certain  strain  of  music : 

...  It  came  o'er  my  ear  like  the  sweet  sound 
That  breathes  upon  a  bank  of  violets, 
Stealing  and  giving  odour. 

Every  one  feels,  on  reading  such  a  comparison,  that  the  imag« 


FIGURES  —  SIMILE.  151 

with  which  soft  music  is  thus  associated  has  given  it  an  additional 
embellishment  and  charm. 

Burlesque.  —  Similes  are  not  always  used  to  dignify  and  elevate  an  object. 
The  aim  of  the  writer  may  be,  as  in  burlesque,  to  make  a  thing  seem  mean  by  com- 
paring it  to  something  low  and  degrading.    Thus  Butler  says  of  Hudibras : 

...  'T  is  known  he  could  speak  Greek 
As  naturally  as  pigs  squeak  ; 
[And]  Latin  was  no  more  difflcile 
Than  to  a  blackbird  't  is  to  whistle. 

Thus  also  he  burlesques  morning : 

The  sun  had  long  since,  in  the  lap 
Of  Thetis,  taken  out  his  nap ; 
And,  like  a  lobster  boiled,  the  mom 
From  black  to  red  began  to  turn. 

The  Object  of  Simile  is  to  increase  the  effect  intended  in 
the  main  assertion,  whether  that  intention  be  to  exalt  or  to 
degrade,  to  dignify  or  to  burlesque. 

Likeness  of  EfFect.  —  Though  the  essence  of  a  simile  consists  in 
likeness,  yet  the  likeness  is  not  necessarily  of  a  material  kind.  One 
thing  may  be  like  another,  not  because  they  look  alike,  or  sound 
alike,  or  have  any  material  qualities  in  common,  but  because  they 
produce  similar  eflFects  upon  the  mind.  They  raise  similar  trains  of 
thought  or  feeling,  or  the  remembrance  of  one  strengthens  in  some 
way  the  impression  produced  by  the  other.  This  kind  of  subtle 
likeness  often  has  a  more  pleasing  effect  than  one  which  is  more 
obvious  to  the  senses. 

Example  from  Ossian.  —  A  certain  simile  of  Ossian's  has  been  much 
admired  on  this  account.  Of  a  particular  strain  of  music,  he  says,  it  was  "like  the 
memory  of  joys  that  are  past,  pleasant  and  mournful  to  the  soul."  The  effect  here  is 
much  finer  than  if  he  had  compared  the  music  to  the  song  of  the  nightingale,  or  the 
murmur  of  a  stream,  although  in  the  latter  cases  there  would  have  been  more  of 
actual  likeness. 

Mere  Likeness  does  not  of  itself  constitute  a  simile.  There  is  no 
simile,  in  the  rhetorical  sense  of  that  word,  when  one  city  is  com- 
pared to  another  city,  one  house  to  another  house,  one  man  to 
another  man,  Napoleon  to  Caesar,  Rothschild  to  Croesus.  In  order 
that  there  may  be  a  legitimate  simile,  the  objects  compared  must  be 
of  a  different  kind. 

Kxamples.  —  A  city  in  the  rapidity  of  its  growth,  may  be  likened  to  Jonah's 
gourd.    Milton,  describing  the  sudden  erection  of  the  huge  fabric  in  Pandemonium, 


152  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Bays,  it  "rose  like  an  exhalation."  A  great  warrior  may  be  compared  to  a  thunder- 
bolt, or  to  a  desolating  tornado ;  a  sage,  to  a  pillar  of  state.  In  each  of  these  cases, 
there  is  a  legitimate  simile,  because  there  is  a  likeness  of  some  sort  between  the 
objects  compared,  and  at  the  same  time  the  objects  themselves  are  different  in  kind. 

The  principal  Rules  to  be  observed  in  regard  to  the  use  of  Similes 
are  the  fallowing : 

Rule  1.  Similes  should  not  be  drawn  from  things  which 
have  too  near  and  obvious  a  resemblance  to  the  object  com- 
pared. 

Effect  of  Surprise. — One  great  ]^easure  of  the  act  of  comparing 
lies  in  discovering  likenesses  where  at  the  first  glance  we  should  not 
expect  to  find  them.  The  simile  in  such  cases  gives  us  the  pleasure 
of  an  agreeable  surprise. 

£xainplesi.  —  Lover  says,  of  a  small,  swarthy  woman,  "She's  as  short  and  as 
dark  as  a  mid-winter  day."  Milton's  comparisons  nearly  always  have  this  quality 
of  giving  a  surprise,  besides  that  of  filling  the  mind  with  ideas  of  majesty  and  gran- 
deur.   To  give  us  some  idea  of  the  countless  number  of  the  fallen  host,  he  says,  they 

"Lay  entranced 
Thick  as  autumnal  leaves  that  strew  the  brooks 
In  Vallombrosa." 

Satan's  imperial  ensign,  "  full  high  advanced,  shone  like  a  meteor,  streaming  to  the 
wind."  Satan's  own  appearance,  after  his  fall,  is  compared  to  that  of  the  sun  suffer- 
ing an  eclipse,  and  shedding  disastrous  twilight  on  the  nations. 

In  all  these  examples,  the  reader,  on  recognizing  the  likeness,  feels  as  though  he 
had  made  an  unexpected  and  delightful  discovery.  Milton's  comparisons  of  Eve's 
bower  in  Paradise  to  the  arbor  of  Pomona,  and  of  Eve  herself  to  a  wood-nymph,  are 
considered  less  happy,  as  no  great  ingenuity  is  required  to  imagine  one  arbor  like 
another  arbor,  or  one  beautiful  woman  like  another  beautiful  woman. 

Trite  Similes.  —  Many  similes,  which  were  good  enough  when  first  used,  are 
no  longer  available  now,  because  they  have  become  trite  and  commonplace  by  fre- 
quent use.  Such  similes  are  those  comparing  a  hero  to  a  iion,  a  mourner  to  a^ower 
drooping  its  head,  chastity  to  snow,  passion  to  a  tempest,  and  so  on. 

Rule  2.   Similes  should  not  be  drawn  from   objects  in 

which  the  likeness  is  too  faint  and  remote. 

Such  similes  are  said  to  be  far-fetched. 

Bxampleg.  —  Some  of  the  older  poets  erred  freqtiently  in  this  line.  Thus  Cow- 
ley, speaking  of  a  friend,  says  that  at  night  before  retiring  to  sleep  he  Avashed  away 
from  his  soul  by  tears  all  the  stains  it  had  received  during  the  day,  as  the  sun  Sets  iu 
water  [the  ocean]  and  is  thereby  kept  unsullied. 

Still  with  his  soul  severe  account  he  kept, 
Weeping  all  debts  out  ere  he  slopt; 
Then  down  In  peace  and  innocence  he  lay, 


FIGURES  —  SIMILE.  153 

Like  the  sun'a  laborious  light, 
Which  still  in  water  sets  at  night, 
Unsullied  with  the  journey  of  the  day." 

By  a  good  deal  of  study  and  thought  we  can  trace  here  some  resemblance  between 
the  two  objects  compared,  that  is,  the  man  lying  down  at  night  bathed  in  tears,  and 
the  sun  setting  in  the  ocean  ;  but  the  resemblance  is  faint,  and  requires  entirely  too 
much  study.    The  simile  is  far-fetched. 

It  is  worse  even  than  this.  There  is  absolute  falsehood  in  the  figure.  The  author 
states  as  a  fact  that  the  sun  purges  itself  in  the  water,  and  this  falsehood  disappoints 
and  vexes  the  reader. 

An  example  of  more  recent  date  is  the  following  from  Longfellow : 

The  day  is  done,  and  the  darkness 

Falls  from  the  wing  of  night. 
As  a  feather  is  wafted  downward 

From  an  eagle  in  his  flight. 

KuLE  3.  Similes  should  not  be  drawn  from  objects  with 
which  ordinary  readers  are  unacquainted. 

What  is  Excluded.  —  This  rule  excludes  comparisons  founded  on 
scientific  discoveries,  or  on  objects  with  which  persons  of  a  cerfain 
trade  only,  or  a  certain  profession,  are  conversant.  In  accordance 
with  this  rule,  also,  it  is  well  to  avoid  drawing  comparisons  from 
ordinary  objects  in  foreign  countries,  with  which  most  readers  are 
acquainted  by  reading  only. 

Further  Cautious.  —  There  are  indeed  certain  noted  objects,  such  as  tho 
Pyramids,  the  Alps,  the  Nile,  the  Tiber,  Rome,  Jerusalem,  London,  and  so  forth,  with 
which  well-read  people  everywhere  are  familiar.  But,  as  a  general  thing,  writers 
should  take  their  illustrations  from  objects  which  exist  in  their  own  country,  and 
which  they  and  their  readers  have  seen.  It  is  well  enough  for  English  poets  to  sing 
of  the  nightingale,  whose  high  note  is  heard  from  the  boughs  in  the  stillness  of  mid- 
night, and  of  the  sky-lark,  which  "at  break  of  day  sings  hymns  at  heaven's  gate;'* 
but  American  poets  and  readers  know  nothing  of  either  except  from  books. 

Rule  4.  Similes  should  not,  in  serious  discourse,  be 
drawn  from  objects  which  are  mean  or  low. 

This  rule  does  not  apply  to  Burlesque,  or  to  writings  intended  to 
degrade  and  vilify.  In  such  writings,  the  very  aim  of  the  author  is 
to  bring  an  object  into  ridicule  or  contempt,  by  associating  it  in  the 
mind  with  something  mean  or  ridiculous.  But  in  ordinary  discourse, 
the  aim  is  just  the  opposite,  and  care  should  be  taken  accordingly 
that  the  objects  to  which  anything  is  compared  should  not  only  pos- 
sess a  likeness  to  it,  but  that  they  should  be  of  a  pleas'ing  and  ele- 
vating character. 
14 


154  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Examples.  —  There  may  be  truth  in  the  following  comparison  from  Pope,  but 
the  simile  ofifends  the  reader,  because  it  associates  the  name  of  a  great  and  good  man 
with  a  mean  and  degrading  idea : 

Superior  beings,  when  of  late  they  saw 
A  mortal  man  unfold  all  nature's  law, 
Admired  such  wisdom  in  an  earthly  shape, 
And  showed  a  Newton  as  we  show  an  ape. 

The  two  following  examples  may  perhaps  be  allowable,  because  the  aim  of  ^he 
writer  is  to  belittle  the  subject: 

«'  Mr. would  be  a  powerful  preacher  if  he  did  not  drown  his  thought  in  a  Dead 

Sea  of  words.  You  don't  want  a  drove  of  oxen  to  drag  a  cart-load  of  potatoes  over  a 
smooth  road." 

•  "  Skepticism  in  an  honest  and  thoughtful  young  man  is  like  the  chicken-pox,  — 
very  apt  to  come,  but  not  dangerous,  and  soon  over,  leaving  both  complexion  and 
constitution  as  good  as  ever." 

KuLE  5.  Similes  should  not  be  drawn  from  great  or  sub- 
lime objects,  when  we  are  describing  what  is  low  or  trivial. 

Such  comparisons  may  be  proper  in  mock-heroic,  or  burlesque, 
but  not  in  serious  composition. 

A  popular  orator,  speaking  of  one  of  our  common  anuiversary-days,  uses  the  follow- 
ing language:  "Pharos  of  the  ages,  we  hail  thy  glimmerings  'mid  the  cataracts  of 
Time." 

Rule  6.  Similes  are  inappropriate  when  strong  passion 
is  to  be  expressed. 

To  pause  for  the  purpose  of  hunting  up  curious  likenesses  and 
comparisons,  implies  leisure  and  deliberation ;  and  passion,  just  in 
proportion  to  its  force,  is  unhesitating  and  rapid.  It  has  no  leisure 
to  cast  about  for  resemblances. 

The  hero  in  Addison's  Cato,  in  a  moment  of  violent  anguish  at  the  separation  from 
his  lady-love,  makes  the  following  elaborate  comparison,  which,  under  the  circum- 
stances, cannot  be  regarded  otherwise  than  as  affected : 

Thus  o'er  the  dying  lamp  th'  unsteady  flame 

Hangs  quiv'ring  on  a  point,  leaps  off  by  fits, 

And  falls  again,  as  loth  to  quit  its  hold. 

Thou  must  not  go ;  my  soul  still  hovers  o'er  thee, 

And  can't  get  loose. 

II.     METAPHOR. 

Metaphor  is  a  figure  founded  upon  the  resemblance  which 
one  object  bears  to  another.  Hence  it  is  nearly  allied  to 
Simile.     A  metaphor  is,  indeed,  a  sort  of  abridged  simile. 


FIGURES  —  METAPHOR.  156 

Difference  between  Metaphor  and  Simile.  —  If  we  say  of  a  great 
gtatesman,  "  He  upholds  the  state,  like  the  pillar  which  upholds  an 
edifice,"  we  make  the  comparison  by  a  Simile.  If  we  say  of  him, 
**  He  is  the  pillar  of  the  state,"  we  make  the  same  comparison  by  a 
Metaphor.  In  simile,  the  comparison  is  usually  expressed  by  like^ 
as,  such  as,  or  words  of  similar  import.  In  metaphor,  the  compari- 
son, if  made  at  all,  is  not  formally  expressed  in  words.  One  object 
is  assumed  to  be  so  like  another,  that  things  properly  belonging 
to  the  one  are  attributed  to  the  other,  without  stopping  to  draw  a 
formal  comparison  between  them  —  without,  in  fact,  stopping  to  think 
whether  such  a  likeness  exists  or  not.  If  the  metaphor  expresses, 
or  even  suggests  comparison,  that  metaphor  is  faulty.  Not  that  a 
metaphor  may  not  be  taken  to  pieces,  and  be  shown  to  owe  its  exist- 
ence to  comparison ;  but  it  should  not,  at  first  sight,  suggest  com- 
parison. The  figure  should  be  so  involved  in  the  subject  that  you 
can  hardly  pull  the  two  apart.  In  simile,  on  the  contrary,  the  sub- 
ject and  the  figure  are  but  Siamese  twins :  a  whip  of  the  knife,  and 
the  two  are  divided,  without  damage  to  either. 

Effectiveness  of  Metaphor.  —  The  metaphor  is  a  more  lively  and 
animated  method  than  the  simile  for  expressing  comparison.  Meta- 
phor, indeed,  of  all  the  figures,  comes  nearest  to  painting,  enabling 
us  to  clothe  at  will  the  most  abstract  ideas  with  life,  form,  color,  and 
motion,  and  to  "  give  to  airy  nothing  a  local  habitation  and  a  name." 

A^few  examples  will  show  how  much"  more  condensed  and  effec- 
tive the  metaphor  is  than  the  simile. 

Simile  I  As  it  is  a  flattering  condescension  when  the  eye  of  a  sovereign  rests  upon 
a  subject,  so  it  is  when  the  light  of  the  morning  sun  first  falls  upon  the  mountain- 
tops.  As  an  image  of  burnished  gold,  when  brought  within  kissing  distance  of  any 
dull  objects,  lights  them  up  with  its  own  shining  radiance,  making  them  also  look 
like  gold,  80  the  morning  rays  of  the  sun,  after  first  touching?  the  mountain-tops, 
descend  gradually  to  the  valleys,  lighting  up  the  green  meadows  and  the  pale  etreami, 
as  with  some  heavenly  gilding. 

Metaphor : 

Full  many  a  glorious  morning  have  I  seen 

Flatter  the  mountain-top  with  sovran  eye, 

Kissing  with  golden  face  the  meadows  green, 

Gilding  pale  streams  with  heavenly  alchemy.  —  ShaJcspeare. 

Simile  :  As,  in  passing  through  a  prism,  beams  of  white  light  are  decomposed 
into  the  colors  of  the  rainbow ;  so,  in  traversing  the  soul  of  the  poet,  the  colorless 
rays  of  truth  are  transformed  into  bright-tinted  poetry. 

Metaplior :  The  white  light  of  truth,  in  traversing  the  many-sided  transparent 
Boul  of  the  poet,  is  refracted  into  iris-hued  poetry.  —  Herbert  Spencer. 


156  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Simile  I  The  temper  of  the  nation,  loaded  already  with  grievances,  was  lik*  a 
vessel  that  is  now  full,  and  this  additional  provocation,  like  the  last  drop  infused, 
made  their  rage  and  resentment  as  waters  of  bitterness  overflow. 

MetapUor :  The  vessel  was  now  full,  and  this  last  drop  made  the  waters  of  bit- 
terness overflow.  —  Bolinghroke. 

Bales  for  Simile  and  for  Metaphor.  —  The  rules  which  have  been 
given  in  regard  to  the  Simile  apply  in  some  measure  to  the  Metaphor 
also.  Metaphors  ordinarily  should  not  be  drawn  from  things  having 
too  near  and  obvious  a  resemblance,  from  things  in  which  the  like- 
ness is  too  faint  or  remote,  from  things  with  which  ordinary  readers 
are  unacquainted,  from  objects  mean  and  low,  or  from  objects  too 
far  above  that  which  they  are  intended  to  illustrate.  Metaphors, 
however,  are  often  used  for  the  expression  of  strong  passion,  and  in 
this  respect  differ  materially  from  similes.  Metaphor,  being  an 
abbreviated  simile,  suits  very  well  the  rapid  vehemence  of  passion. 

Examples  of  this  abound  in  Shakspeare.  No  portions  of  his  plays  so  teem 
with  metaphor  as  those  most  highly  tragical.  The  Bastard  in  King  John,  seeing 
Hubert  take  up  the  body  of  the  murdered  Prince,  exclaims. 

How  easy  dost  thou  take  all  England  up! 

When  the  assassin  discloses  to  the  Prince  the  red-hot  iron,  and  declares  that  he  haa 
come  to  burn  out  the  Prince's  eyes  therewith,  Arthur  begs  him  not  to  be  more  cruel 
than  even  the  instrument  of  torture  : 

The  iron  of  itself,  though  heat  red-hot. 

Approaching  near  these  eyes,  would  drink  my  tears. 

And  quench  his  fiery  indignation  • 

Even  in  the  matter  of  mine  innocence. 

As  the  rules  relating  especially  to  the  Simile  illustrate  to  some  ex- 
tent the  Metaphor,  so  also  the  rules  relating  especially  to  the  Meta- 
phor illustrate  to  some  extent  the  use  of  the  Simile.  The  rules  which 
more  particularly  limit  the  use  of  the  Metaphor  are  the  following : 

KuLE  1.  The  metaphorical  and  the  literal  should  not  be 
mixed  in  the  same  sentence. 

Eule  Explained.  —  A  metaphor  having  been  introduced  into  a  sen- 
tence, all  parts  of  the  sentence  should  be  made  to  conform  to  the 
figure  thus  introduced.  This  rule  is  violated  when  part  of  the  words 
are  such  as  apply  to  the  figure,  and  part  are  plain  and  literal. 

Kxamples.  —  Drydon  says,  speaking  of  the  aids  ho  had  had  in  some  of  his  liter- 
ary labors,  "  I  was  sailing  in  a  vast  ocean  [metaphor],  without  other  help  than  th« 
pole-star  [metaphor  continued]  of  the  ancients,  and  the  rules  of  the  French  stage  [lit- 
eral] among  the  moderns." 


FIGURES  —  METAPHOK.  157 

In  Pope's  translation  of  Homer,  Penelope,  speaking  of  the  loss  of  her  husband,  and 
then  of  the  abrupt  departure  of  her  son,  says : 

Long  to  my  joys  my  dearest  lord  is  lost, 
His  country's  buckler,  and  the  Grecian  boast; 
»  Now,  from  my  fond  embrace  by  tempests  torn. 

Our  other  column  [met.]  of  the  state  is  borne, 
Nor  took  a  kind  adieu,  nor  sought  consent. 

Here  her  son  is  figured  in  one  line  as  a  column,  and  in  the  next  he  is  a  person,  to 
whom  it  belongs  to  take  adieu,  and  to  ask  consent.  This  is  incongruous.  It  is  mix- 
ing up  the  metaphorical  and  the  literal  in  the  same  construction.  Having  spoken  of 
Telemachus  under  the  metaphor  of  a  column,  the  author  should  not  have  ascribed  to 
him  in  that  sentence  anything  but  what  could  be  ascribed  to  a  column. 

"  Boyle  was  the  father  of  Chemistry,  and  brother  to  the  Earl  of  Cork." 

To  thee  the  world  its  present  homage  pays, 

The  Tiarvest  [met.]  early,  but  mature  [met.]  the  praise  [lit.]. 

The  fault  here  is  not  serious.  Yet  every  reader  feels  that  but  for  the  sake  of  a 
rhyme,  the  second  line  would  have  ended  "  mature  the  crop.'"'' 

Examples  of  Correct  Metaphor.  —  The  following  are  examples  of 
sentences  in  which  the  language  of  the  metaphor  is  sustained  and 
consistent  throughout : 

Speaking  of  the  king's  honor:  "The  feather  that  adorns  the  royal  bird  supports  his 
flight.    Strip  him  of  his  plumage,  and  you  fix  him  to  the  earth." — Junius. 

"  In  the  shipwreck  of  the  state,  trifles  float  and  are  preserved ;  while  everything 
solid  and  valuable  sinks  to  the  bottom,  and  is  lost  forever."  —  Junius. 

Of  a  hero:  "In  peace,  thou  art  the  gale  of  spring;  in  war,  the  mountain  storm." — 
Ossian. 

Of  a  woman :  "  She  was  covered  with  the  light  of  beauty ;  but  her  heart  was  the 
bearer  of  pride." —  Ossia7i. 

"Trotlial  went  forth  with  the  stream  of  his  people,  but  they  met  a  rock :  for  Fingal 
stood  unmoved;  broken,  they  rolled  back  from  his  side." —  Ossian. 
Speaking  of  an  artist : 

"  You  make  him  but  the  spigot  of  a  cask. 
Round  which  you,  teachers,  wait  with  silver  cups 
To  bear  away  the  wine  that  leaves  it  dry."  —  Holland's  Kathrina. 

Rule  2.  Two  different  metaphors  should  not  be  used  in 
the  same  sentence  and  in  reference  to  the  same  subject. 

This  produces  what  is  called  mixed  metaphor,  and  is  a  worse  fault 
even  than  mixing  the  metaphorical  and  the  literal  in  the  same  sen- 
tence. 

Kxamples*  —  Shakspeare's  expression,  "To  take  arms  against  a  sea  of  trouble*," 
is  open  to  criticism  on  this  ground.    Addison  says : 

14*  11 


158  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

"I  bridle  in  my  struggling  muse  with  pain. 
That  longs  to  launch  into  a  bolder  strain." 

The  muse,  figured  as  a  horse,  may  be  "bridled  ;"  but  when  we  speak  of  "launching,'* 
we  make  it  a  ship.    The  author  bridles  it  to  keep  it  from  launching  ! 

In  religious  discourse  people  are  apt  to  use  Scripture  metaphors  in  a  careless  way. 
The  following  curious  jumble  once  took  place :  A  man  prayed  tliat  "  the  word  which 
had  been  preached  might  be  like  a  nail  driven  in  a  »ure  place,  sending  its  roots  down- 
ward and  its  branches  upward,  spreading  itself  like  a  green  bay-tree,  fair  as  the  moon, 
clear  as  the  sun,  and  terrible  as  an  army  with  banners  I " 

Observe  the  mixing  of  metaphors  in  the  following  passages:  "The  shot  of  the 
enemy  mowed  down  our  ranks  wit"h  frightful  rapidity.  On  every  hand  men  and 
horses  lay  in  universal  carnage,  like  scattered  wrecks  on  a  storm-beaten  shore." 

"  His  thoughts  soared  up  from  earth  like  fire  and  winged  their  flight  to  distant 
stars." 

"  Traitors  may  talk  of  England  going  down 
(In  quicksands  that  their  coward  selves  have  sown)— 
She  swims  in  hearts  like  these!" —  Gerald  Massey. 

Here,  in  three  short  lines,  we  have  bad  grammar  ("  England  going  down  " ;  it  should 
be  "England's  going  down"),  bad  rhyme  ("down"  and  "sown"),  bad  metaphors 
(England  swimming  in  hearts!  and  sowing  " quicksands  "  —  he  might  as  well  have 
talked  of  sowing  batter-pndding ! )  and  lastly,  very  commonplace  thought  as  the  basis 
of  the  whole. 

Rule  3.  Metaphors  on  the  same  subject  should  not  be 
crowded  together  in  rapid  succession. 

Explanation.  —  Though  the  figure  in  each  case  may  be  distinct 
and  consistently  carried  out,  yet  the  mind,  having  in  quick  succes- 
sion to  conceive  the  subject,  first  in  its  literal  sense,  then  in  a  figura- 
tive sense,  and  then  again  in  still  another  figure,  becomes  confused. 

Example*  —  Swift  says,  "  Those  whose  minds  are  dull  and  heavy  do  not  easily 
penetrate  into  the  folds  and  intricacies  of  an  affair,  and  therefore  can  only  scum  ojf 
what  they  find  at  the  top."  Here  the  mind  has,  first,  to  think  of  the  literal  fact, 
namely,  that  dull  people  do  not  easily  peneti-ate  the  difficulties  of  a  subject ;  next,  to 
think  of  this  fact  under  the  similitude  of  handling  the  outer  folds  of  a  bale  of  cloth, 
without  ever  getting  at  the  inside ;  and  then  again  to  think  of  the  same  fact  under 
the  similitude  of  skimming  the  top  of  some  impure  liquid  without  reaching  the  bot- 
tom. The  two  metaphors,  though  separable,  are  in  such  close  succession  that  they 
have  the  efiect  of  a  mixed  metaphor. 

Rule  4.  Metaphors  should  not  be  multiplied  to  excess. 

Explanation.  —  Though  the  metaphors  may  refer  to  different  sub- 
jects, and  be  in  different  sentences,  and  therefore  not  come  within 
either  of  the  two  preceding  rules,  yet  if  they  are  greatly  multiplied, 
they  have  a  confusing  effect  upon  the  mind.  The  variety  of  subjects 
distracts  the  attention. 


FIGURES  —  ALLEGORY.  169 

Excessive  Use  of  Figures.  — The  effect  of  unduly  multiplying  meta- 
phors is  very  much  like  that  produced  by  being  over-dressed.  This 
is  true,  not  of  metaphor  merely,  but  of  every  kind  of  figure.  Fig- 
ures, whether  for  ornament  or  for  illustration,  to  have  their  proper 
effect,  must  be  used  with  moderation.  Really  good  metaphors, 
occurring  only  here  and  there,  at  judicious  intervals,  and  on  suit- 
able subjects,  have  a  brilliant  effect.  But  if  multiplied  too  much, 
no  matter  how  sparkling  each  may  be  in  itself,  they  produce  only  a 
disagreeable  glitter. 

Rule  5.  Metaphors  should  not  be  carried  too  far. 

This  fault  is  committed  when  the  resemblance  on  which  the  meta- 
phor is  founded  is  carried  out  into  a  great  many  minute  and  irrele- 
vant circumstances.     This  is  called  straining  the  metaphor. 

flxample.  —  Young  says  of  old  age,  that  it  should 

Walk  thoughtful  on  the  silent,  solemn  shore 
Of  that  vast  ocean  it  must  sail  so  soon ; 
And  put  good  works  on  board ;  and  wait  the  wind 
That  shortly  blows  us  into  worlds  unknown. 

The  expression  in  the  first  two  lines  is  universally  admired.  But  when  the  author 
begins  to  "put  good  works  on  board,"  and  to  "wait  the  wind,"  the  metaphor  becomes 
strained  and  loses  dignity.  Instead  of  the  deep  emotion  excited  by  walking  "thought- 
ful on  the  silent,  solemn  shore,"  the  mind  is  brouglit  down  to  the  prosaic  and  calcu- 
lating operations  of  a  seafaring  enterprise. 

III.     ALLEGORY. 

An  Allegory  is  a  sort  of  continued  Metaphor.  It  is  a 
description  of  one  thing  under  the  image  of  another. 

Diflference  between  Allegory  and  Metaphor.  —  Allegory  differs  from 
a  Metaphor  in  two  respects.  First,  it  is  carried  out  into  a  great 
variety  of  particulars,  making  usually  a  complete  and  connected 
story.  Secondly,  it  suppresses  all  mention  of  the  principal  subject, 
leaving  us  to  infer  the  writer's  intention  from  the  resemblance  of 
the  narrative,  or  of  the  description  to  the  principal  subject. 

Points  in  Common.  —  Allegory,  metaphor,  and  simile  have  this  in 
common,  that  they  are  all  founded  in  resemblance,  there  being  in 
each  case  two  subjects,  a  primary  and  a  secondary,  having  certain 
points  of  likeness.  In  Simile,  this  resemblance  is  expressed  in  form, 
as  when  it  is  said,   "  Israel  is  like  a  vine,  brought  from  Egypt,  and 


160  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

planted  in  Palestine."  In  Metaphor  the  formal  comparison  is  drop- 
ped, as  when  it  is  said,  "Israel  is  a  vine  brought  from  Egypt,"  &c. 
In  Allegory,  both  the  formal  comparison  and  the  "principal  subject 
are  dropped,  and  the  secondary  subject  is  described  by  itself,  leav- 
ing the  application  entirely  to  the  imagination  of  the  reader,  as 
when  it  is  said,  "God  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt,  and  planted  it  in 
Palestine,"  The  reader  knows  that  by  the  vine  is  meant  God's 
people,  Israel;  yet  Israel  is  not  once  mentioned,  and  there  is  neither 
metaphor  nor  simile,  though  there  is  a  likeness. 

This  allegory  occurs  in  the  eightieth  Psalm,  and  is  as  follows : 

"  Thou  hast  brov.ght  a  vine  out  of  Egypt :  thou  hast  cast  out  the  heathen,  and 
planted  it.  Thou  preparedst  room  for  it,  and  didst  cause  it  to  take  deep  root,  and  it 
filled  the  land.  The  hills  were  covered  with  the  shadow  of  it,  and  the  boughs  thereof 
were  like  the  goodly  cedars.  She  sent  out  her  boughs  unto  the  sea,  and  her  branchoa 
unto  the  river.  Why  hast  thou  broken  down  her  hedges,  so  that  all  they  which  pass 
by  the  way  do  pluck  her?  The  boar  out  of  the  wood  doth  waste  it,  and  the  wild 
beast  of  the  field  doth  devour  it." 

Here  every  circumstance,  except  that  of  casting  out  the  heathen,  answers  to  the 
description  of  a  A'ine,  while  at  the  same  time  God's  dealings  with  the  Jewish  people, 
though  not  once  named,  are  plainly  suggested  to  the  mind  of  the  reader.  If  the 
Psalmist,  instead  of  saying  that  the  vine  was  wasted  by  the  boar  from  the  wood,  and 
devoured  by  the  wild  beast,  had  said  that  it  was  afilicted  by  heathens,  or  overcome 
by  enemies,  (which  was  his  real  meaning,)  he  would  have  spoiled  the  allegory. 

Allegory,  Parable,  and  Fable  are  closely  akin  to  each  other,  and 
these  terms  are  often  interchangeable.  Some  distinctions  between 
them,  however,  are  worthy  of  notice.  Allegory  is  the  only  term 
used  in  reference  to  extended  works  of  this  kind,  such  as  Pilgrim's 
Progress  and  the  Faery  Queen.  Shorter  allegorical  compositions 
are  more  frequently  called  Fables,  or  Parables,  the  latter  term 
being  specially  used  for  specimens  of  this  kind  in  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures. The  story  told  by  Jotham,  in  the  ninth  chapter  of  Judges, 
of  the  trees  choosing  for  themselves  a  king,  is  called  a  Parable. 
Had  it  occurred  in  ^sop,  it  would  have  been  called  a  Fable.  None 
of  these  distinctions,  however,  in  regard  to  the  allegory,  the  parable, 
and  the  fable,  are  absolute. 

Where  Found.  —  Oriental  nations  are  much  addicted  to  the  use  of 
this  kind  of  writing,  and  there  are  many  excellent  instances  of  it  in 
the  Bible.  There  are  no  Parables  comparable  for  excellence  to 
those  in  the  New  Testament.  Auuiig  the  ancients  the  Fables  of 
M<op  are  especially  famous.  The  most  perfect  Allegory  in  all  litera- 
ture is  the  Pilgrim's  Progress,  by  Bunyan. 

Recent  Example. — The  following  passage  from  a  recent  work. 


FIGURES  —  ANTITHESIS.  161 

Forbes's  Travels  through  the  Alps,  is  a  beautiful  example  of  Simile, 
or  Metaphor,  extended  into  Allegory  : 

Poets  and  philosophers  have  delighted  to  compare  the  course  of  human  life  to  that 
of  a  river ;  perhaps  a  still  apter  simile  might  be  found  in  the  history  of  a  glacier. 
Heaven-descended  in  its  origin,  it  yet  takes  its  mould  and  conformation  from  the  hid- 
den womb  of  the  mountains  which  brought  it  forth.  At  first  soft  and  ductile,  it 
acquires  a  character  and  firmness  of  its  own,  as  an  inevitable  destiny  urges  it  in  its 
onward  career.  Jostled  and  constrained  by  the  crosses  and  inequalities  of  its  pre- 
scribed path,  hedged  in  by  impassable  barriers  which  fix  limits  to  its  movements,  it 
yields  groaning  to  its  fate,  and  still  travels  forward,  seamed  with  the  scars  of  many  a 
conflict  with  opposing  obstacles.  All  this  while,  although  wasting,  it  is  renewed  by 
an  unseen  power  —  it  evaporates,  but  is  not  consumed.  On  its  surface  it  bears  the 
spoils  which,  during  the  progress  of  its  existence,  it  has  made  its  own; — often 
weighty  burdens,  devoid  of  beauty  or  value, — at  times  precious  masses,  sparkling 
with  gems  or  with  ore.  Having  at  length  attained  its  greatest  width  and  extension, 
commanding  admiration  by  its  beauty  and  power,  waste  predominates  over  supply, 
the  vital  springs  begin  to  fail ;  it  stoops  into  an  attitude  of  decrepitude  ;  it  drops  the 
burdens,  one  by  one,  which  it  had  borne  so  proudly  aloft ;  its  dissolution  is  inevitable. 
But  as  it  is  resolved  into  its  elements,  it  takes,  all  at  once,  a  new,  and  livelier,  a;id 
disembarrassed  form:  — from  the  wreck  of  its  members  it  arises,  another,  and  yet  the 
same,  —  a  noble,  full-bodied,  arrowy  stream,  which  leaps  rejoicing  over  the  obstacles 
which  before  had  stayed  its  progress,  and  hastens  through  fertile  valleys  towards  a 
freer  existence,  and"  a  final  union  in  the  ocean  with  the  boundless  and  the  infinite. 

This  figure  may  be  open  to  some  extent  to  the  objection  that  it  is 
based  upon  scientific  knowledge.  But  the  description  of  glacial 
action  has  occupied  of  late  so  large  a  place  in  popular  literature 
that  the  objection  may  be  waived.  The  figure  certainly  is  singularly 
beautiful. 

Rule. — The  principal,  almost  the  only  rule,  in  regard  to 
Allegory,  is  to  avoid  mingling  the  literal  signification  with 
the  figurative. 

Allegory  is  a  very  difficult  kind  of  composition,  in  which  few  suc- 
ceed. None  should  attempt  it  unless  they  have  by  nature  a  special 
aptitude  for  it. 

IV.     ANTITHESIS. 

Antithesis,  unlike  the  figures  thus  far  considered,  is  not 
founded  on  resemblance,  but  on  contrast  or  opposition.  It 
consists  in.  putting  two  unlike  things  in  juxtaposition,  so 
that  each  will  appear  more  striking  by  the  contrast. 

The  effect  produced  is  in  accordance  with  a  general  law  of  mental 
action,  that  all  objects  of  knowledge  make  a  stronger  impression  on 


162  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

the  mind  when  presented  alongside  of  their  opposites.  White  never 
appears  so  bright  as  when  bordering  immediately  upon  black.  Sound 
never  seems  so  loud  as  when  preceded  and  followed  by  perfect  silence. 
When,  therefore,  we  wish  to  give  to  a  thought  special  emphasis,  we 
often  do  so  by  connecting  the  thought  with  an  expression  of  its  oppo- 
site, or  of  something  with  which  it  is  contrasted. 

^Examples  of  Antithesis.  —  "When  our  vices  leave  us,  we  flatter  ourselves  that 
•we  leave  them."  "The  prodigal  robs  his  heir,  the  miser  robs  himself."  "If  you 
wish  to  make  a  man  rich,  study  not  to  increase  his  stores,  but  to  diminish  his 
desires." 

Rule. — The  only  practical  Rule  in  regard  to  Antithesis 
is  to  give  the  contrasted  ideas  a  similar  verbal  construction. 
Let  nouns  be  contrasted  to  nouns,  adjectives  to  adjectives, 
verbs  to  verbs,  and  so  on,  and  let  the  arrangement  of  the 
words  in  the  contrasted  clauses  be  also  as  nearly  alike  as 
possible. 

The  reason  for  this  rule  is  obvious.  If  two  objects,  one  white  and 
one  black,  are  placed  side  by  side,  the  difference  between  them  in 
color  will  be  all  the  more  striking  if  the  objects  are  in  other  respects 
alike,  that  is,  are  of  the  same  material,  size,  and  shape.  So  in  com- 
position, the  point  of  an  antithesis  is  made  much  more  marked  by 
making  the  contrasted  clauses  closely  analogous  in  construction. 

Examples.  —  If  you  regulate  your  desires  according  to  the  standard  of  nature, 
you  will  never  be  poor ;  if  according  to  the  standard  of  opinion,  you  will  never  be 
rich. 

Flattery  brings  friends ;  truth  brings  foes. 
Forewarned,  forearmed. 
Enemies  in  war ;  in  peace  friends. 

Caution.  —  Antithesis  must  be  used  with  caution.  If  employed 
too  frequently,  it  gives  to  the  style  a  labored  and  unnatural  charac- 
ter, and  produces  the  impression  that  an  author  is  less  concerned 
with  what  he  says  than  how  he  says  it.  It  also  makes  the  matter 
read  like  a  string  of  proverbs,  which  usually  have  the  antithetical 
form.  This  is  the  vice  of  the  style  of  some  French  writers,  of  Vic- 
tor Hugo,  for  example,  and  of  many  Spanish  writers. 

Example.  — Tlie  following  passage  maybe  given  as  an  illustration  of  this  fault: 
"The  peasant  complains  aloud;  the  courtier  in  secret  repines.  In  want,  what  dis- 
tress? in  affluence,  what  satiety?  The  great  are  under  as  much  difficulty  to  expend 
with  pleasure,  as  the  moan  to  labor  with  8u«o«88.  Ih«  ignorant,  through  ill-grounded 


FIGURES  —  EPIGRAM.  163 

hop«,  are  disappointed;  the  knowing,  through  knowledge,  despond.  Ignorance  occa- 
sions mistake;  mistake  disappointment ;  and  disappointment  is  misery.  Knowledge, 
on  the  other  hand,  gives  true  judgment;  and  true  judgment  of  human  things  gives  a 
demonstration  of  their  insufficiency  to  our  peace."  —  Young. 

Effect  of  Sttcli  Passages.  — Passages  like  this  invariably  weary  the 
reader.  Antithesis  following  antithesis,  sentence  after  sentence, 
has  the  same  effect  that  multiplying  emphatic  words  has  in  reading 
or  speaking.  So  many  things  are  made  striking,  that  nothing 
strikes. 

The  following  passage  contains  fine  examples  both  of  Antithesis 
and  of  Metaphor : 

Talent,  the  sunshine  on  a  cultivated  soil, 
Ripens  the  fruit  by  slow  degrees  for  toil; 
Genius,  the  sudden  Iris  oi  the  skies. 
On  cloud  itself  reflects  the  wondrous  dyes. 
And  to  the  earth  in  tears  and  glory  given, 
Clasps  in  its  airy  arch  the  pomp  of  heaven  1 

The  following,  from  Bulwer,  contains  a  good  example  both  of 
Antithesis  and  Simile: 

Man,  like  the  child,  accepts  the  proffered  boon. 
And  clasps  the  bauble,  where  he  asked  the  moon. 

V.     EPIGRAM. 

Epigram  meant  originally  an  inscription  on  a  monument. 
As  such  inscriptions  are  usually  short,  containing  as  much 
as  possible  in  a  few  words,  Epigram  came  next  to  mean 
any  brief  saying,  prose  or  poetical,  remarkable  for  brevity 
and  point,  and  the  word  is  even  yet  used  largely  in  this 
sense. 

Special  Meaning.  —  There  is  one  particular  mode  by  which  the 
same  startling  effect  is  produced,  and  that  is  by  a  contradiction 
between  the  form  of  expression  and  the  meaning  really  intended. 
Take  the  expression,  "  The  child  is  father  to  the  man."  Here  the 
language,  taken  literally,  contradicts  itself;  yet  the  meaning  is  plain 
enough,  and  is  all  the  more  striking  for  being  presented  in  this  form. 
The  term  Epigram  is  now  sometimes  used  to  express  this  particular 
mode  of  giving  brevity  and  point  to  a  thought. 

Relation  of  Epigram  to  Antithesis.  —  Epigram,  in  this  sense,  is 
akin  to  Antithesis,  because  in  both  of  these  figures  there  is  the  ele- 
ment of  contrariety.     But  in  Antithesis  it  is  the  contrariety  between 


164  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

two  diflFerent  things  brought  together ;  in  Epigram  it  is  the  contra- 
riety between  the  apparent  meaning  of  the  words  and  the  real 
meaning. 

Bxamples.  —  The  following  are  examples  of  this  kind  of  Epigram : 

Beauty,  when  unadorned,  adorned  the  most. 

When  you  have  nothing  to  say,  say  it. 

He  is  a  man  of  principle,  in  proportion  to  his  interest. 

Conspicuous  for  its  absence. 

We  could  not  see  the  woods  for  the  trees. 

Verbosity  is  cured  by  a  wide  vocabulary. 

So  many  things  are  striking  that  nothing  strikes. 

The  easiest  way  of  doing  nothing  is  to  do  it. 

Language  is  the  art  of  concealing  thought. 

Summer  has  set  in  with  its  usual  severity. 

Epigram,  in  the  sense  above  explained,  consists  mainly  in  a  play 
upon  words,  and  so  leads  naturally  to  Pun,  which  turns  entirely 
upon  using  words  in  a  double  meaning.  This  will  be  considered  in 
the  following  chapter. 

VI.     METONYMY. 

Metonymy  means  a  change  of  name.  This  is  a  figure  in 
which  the  name  of  one  object  is  put  for  some  other  object, 
the  two  being  so  related  that  the  mention  of  one  naturally 
suggests  the  other. 

Example.  — When  it  is  said,  "The  drunkard  loves  his  bottle"  we  know  that  it 
is  not  the  bottle,  but  what  it  contains,  that  the  drunkard  loves.  The  bottle  is  put 
for  the  liquor,  the  container  for  the  thing  contained,  and  this  change  of  name  is  a 
Metonymy. 

Metonymies  are  very  numerous  in  kind,  and  occur  more  frequently 
perhaps  than  any  other  figure  of  speech.  Among  the  various  rela- 
tions which  give  rise  to  Metonymy  are  the  following:  Cause  and 
EflFect,  Subject  and  Attribute,  Container  and  thing  contained,  Sign 
and  thing  signified,  &c. 

Cause  for  tht  Effect.  "He  writes  a  beautiful  hand,"  that  is,  "hand-toritingy  "I 
am  reading  Milton,"  that  is,  his  works.  "The  pen  [literature]  is  the  great  civilizer." 
In  like  manner,  in  old  times,  the  names  of  the  mythological  deities  were  put  for  the 
qualities  or  things  whicli  they  were  supposed  to  represent,  as  Bacchus  for  wine,  Ceres 
for  bread,  Pallas  for  wisdom.  Mars  for  war,  Venus  for  love,  Neptune  for  the  ocean,  Ac. 

Effect  for  Cause.  "Gray  hairs  [old  age]  should  be  respected."  "There  is  death  [a 
death-causing  thing]  in  the  pot."  "  Man  shall  live  by  the  sweat  of  his  brow  "  [by  the 
labor  which  causes  sweat  upon  the  brow].  "  Cold  death,"  that  which  makes  its  sub- 
ject cold.    ^'^ Drowsy  night,"  that  which  produces  drowsiness. 


FIGURES  —  INTERROGATION.  165 

Omtainer  for  thing  contaitied.  "  The  kettU  [the  water  in  the  kettle]  boils."  "  He 
keeps  a  good  tabled  "  They  smote  the  city.''''  "  Ye  devour  widows'  houses."  "  The 
House  was  called  to  order."     "  He  sfiaokes  his  pipe." 

The  Sign  for  the  thing  signified.  "He  assumed  the  sceptre"  [the  sovereignty].  "At 
the  present  day,  bayonets  think."  "In  war  the  bullet, in  peace  the  ballot  rules."  "The 
pen  is  mightier  than  the  sword." 

VII.     SYNECDOCHE. 

Synecdoclie  is  a  figure  somewhat  akin  to  Metonymy.  In 
Metonymy  we  use  the  name  of  an  object  to  signify  some 
other  connected  object,  as  when  we  say  bottle,  but  mean  the 
liquor  contained  in  it.  In  Synecdoche  we  do  not  change  a 
name  from  one  object  to  another,  but  we  give  to  an  object  a 
name  which  literally  expresses  something  more  or  something 
less  than  we  intend. 

Examples.  —  We  speak  of  a  sail,  or  of  a  keel,  meaning  thereby  a  whole  ship. 
A  part  is  taken  for  a  whole.  We  speak  of  the  world,  when  we  mean  only  a  certain 
limited  portion  of  the  people  that  compose  the  world.  Here  a  whole  is  used  for  a 
part.  The  word  Synecdoche  means  comprehension,  that  is,  including  many  parts 
under  the  name  of  one  of  them,  and  the  most  common  form  of  the  figure  is  that  first 
described,  in  which  a  part  is  taken  for  the  whole,  as  sail  for  ship,  head  for  person, 
waves  for  sea,  blood  for  life,  hands  for  workmen,  lances  for  horsemen,  &c.  "  I  abjure 
all  roofs"  [houses].  "She  has  seen  sixteen  summers"  [years].  "An  old  man  of 
eighty  winters"  [years].  "The  colt  will  be  three  years  old  next  grrass "  [spring]. 
"  Thirty  sail  [ships]  were  seen  off  the  coast."  '•  The  snows  of  sixty  winters  [years] 
whitened  his  head." 

VIII.     INTERROGATION. 

Interrogation  Explained. — We  often  ask  a  question,  not  for  the 
purpose  of  getting  an  answer,  or  of  receiving  information,  but  as  a 
means  of  expressing  our  own  opinion  more  strongly.  It  is  as  much 
as  to  say,  there  is  but  one  possible  answer  to  this  question. 

Example.  —  "  Who  goeth  a  warfare  at  any  time  at  his  own  charges?  who  plant- 
eth  a  vineyard,  and  eateth  not  of  the  fruit  thereof?  or  who  feedeth  a  flock,  and  eateth 
not  of  the  milk  of  the  flock  ?  "  The  apostle  does  not  ask  these  questions  for  the  sake 
of  learning  anything  on  the  subject,  but  as  an  emphatic  way  of  saying  that  those  who 
enter  military  or  any  other  service  expect  to  have  at  least  their  expenses  paid.  It  is 
a  thing  that  admits  of  no  question.    Who  ever  heard  of  its  being  otherwise  ? 

Definition. — By  Interrogation,  then,  as  a  rhetorical  figure, 
is  meant  putting  our  opinions  in  the  form  of  questions  for 
the  purpose  thereby  of  expressing  our  views  more  positively 
and  vehemently. 
15 


166  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Peculiarities.  — In  regard  to  this  figure  two  peculiarities  are  to  be 
observed.  1.  A  negative  Interrogation  affirms.  "Am  I  not  an 
apostle  ?  am  I  not  free  ?  have  I  not  seen  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord  ?  are 
not  ye  my  work  in  the  Lord  ?  "  Paul  here  intends  to  affirm  these 
several  points  as  being  true  beyond  question.  2.  An  affirmative 
question  denies.  "  Do  we  provoke  the  Lord  to  jealousy  ?  are  we 
stronger  than  He?"  This  is  equivalent  to  saying,  with  strong 
emphasis,  "  We  do  not  provoke  the  Lord  to  jealousy ;  we  are  not 
stronger  than  He." 

"Who  hath  heard  our  report?  and  to  whom  ia  the  arm  of  the  Lord  revealed?" 
This  is  equivalent  to  saying,  "iVb  one  hath  heard  our  report ;  the  arm  of  the  Lord 
hath  not  been  revealed  to  any  one."  This  figure  is  of  very  frequent  recurrence  in  the 
Holy  Scriptures. 

IX.    EXCLAMATION. 

Exclamation  is  a  figure  akin  to  Interrogation.  Instead 
of  stating  a  fact  simply  and  calmly,  the  writer  or  speaker 
utters  an  expression  of  surprise,  or  of  emotion  of  some  kind, 
on  seeing  that  the  thing  is  so.  Exclamation,  therefore,  is  a 
figure  which  expresses  a  thing  strongly  by  expressing  emo- 
tion on  account  of  it. 

"This  is  a  sad  event,"  is  a  plain,  simple  statement.  "What  a  sad  event!  "is  the 
same  thing  expressed  with  emotion. 

Cautions.  —  Exclamation  is  suitable  only  in  cases  of  real  emotion. 
A  common  mistake  of  feeble  writers  is  to  imagine  that  a  passage 
becomes  emotional  by  merely  putting  it  into  the  form  of  an  excla- 
mation, although  the  thought  itself  is  perfectly  simple  and  common- 
place. Such  a  use  of  the  figure,  instead  of  making  the  composition 
more  animated,  makes  it  frigid.  Nothing  in  style  is  so  chilling  as 
aflFecting  a  passion  which  one  does  not  feel.  An  author  who  is  all 
the  while  calling  upon  us  to  enter  into  transports  which  he  says 
nothing  to  inspire,  only  disgusts  us. 

The  occasions  which  justify  the  use  of  Exclamation  are  compara- 
tively rare,  and  writers  should  be  correspondingly  careful  in  resort- 
ing to  it.  A  reader,  who  on  opening  a  new  book  sees  its  pages 
thickly  bespangled  with  exclamation  points,  is  apt  to  lay  the  book 
aside  without  further  examination. 

When  properly  used,  however,  this  figure  is  one  of  great  value 
and  power.     Lyric  and  Dramatic  poetry  abound  with  examples. 
"A  harae !  a  hors« !  my  kingdom  for  a  hor»« !  "  —  Ricliard  III. 


FIGURES  —  PERSONIFICATION.  167 

"  What  a  piece  of  work  is  man !  how  noble  in  reason !  how  infinite  in  faculties !  in 
form  and  moving,  how  express  and  admirable!  in  action,  how  like  an  angel!  in  appre- 
hension, how  like  a  god!  the  beauty  of  the  world!  the  paragon  of  animals!"  —  Havilet. 

"How  is  the  gold  become  dim!  how  is  the  most  fine  gold  changed!  " — Jeremiah. 

Hymns,  being  mainly  expressive  of  emotion,  abound  in  exclama- 
tion beyond  any  other  species  of  composition. 

X.     APOSTROPHE. 

Definition.  —  The  same  excited  state  of  feeling  which 
causes  Exclamation  leads  also  to  Apostrophe.  The  word 
means  a  turning  away.  It  is  a  figure  in  which  we  turn 
from  the  regular  course  of  thought,  and  instead  of  continu- 
ing to  speak  of  an  object  in  the  third  person,  speak  to  it  in 
the  second  person. 

In  Apostrophe  we  address  the  absent  as  though  present,  the  inan- 
imate as  though  animate,  the  dead  as  though  living. 

Apostrophe  indicates  usually  a  high  degree  of  excitement. 

Thus  King  David,  on  hearing  of  the  death  of  Absalom,  exclaims:  "0,  my  son  Absa- 
lom, my  son,  my  son  Absalom !  would  God  I  had  died  for  thee,  0  Absalom,  my  son, 
my  son  !  "  Another  Apostrophe,  more  extended,  and  equally  beautiful,  is  the  lament 
of  David  over  the  death  of  Jonathan.     (2  Sam.  1:  21-27.) 

Apostrophe  is  not  always  of  this  passionate  character.  It  some- 
times results  from  an  tfxalted  state  of  the  imagination,  and  in  such 
cases  is  capable  of  being  sustained  through  a  much  longer  passage 
than  when  resulting  from  passionate  emotion.  Byron's  apostrophe 
to  the  ocean  is  an  instance  in  point. 

XI.     PERSONIFICATION. 

Personification  consists  in  attributing  life  to  things  inan- 
imate. 

Personification  Distinguishable  from  Apostrophe.  —  Personification 
and  Apostrophe  often  go  together.  They  are  distinguishable,  how- 
ever. In  Apostrophe,  we  often  address  things  inanimate,  and  when 
we  do  so,  we  necessarily  personify  them;  as  (Jer.  47:  6,)  "0  thou 
sword  of  the  Lord,  how  long  will  it  be  ere  thou  be  quiet?  put  up 
thyself  into  thy  scabbard,  rest,  and  be  still."  Here  both  figures 
occur.  The  sword  is  at  the  same  time  addressed  and  personified. 
But  there  may  be   Apostrophe  without  Personification,  as   in  the 


168  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

lament  of  David  at  the  death  of  Absalom.  The  object  there  ad- 
dressed being  already  a  person,  of  course  it  cannot  be  personified. 
Personification,  moreover,  may  exist  where  there  is  no  Apostrophe. 
The  object  may  be  spoken  of  as  a  person,  instead  of  being  spoken  to. 
This  kind  of  Personification  is  much  the  most  common  form  of  the 
figure,  and  abounds  in  almost  every  species  of  composition. 

"The  mountrtins  sing  together,  the  hills  rejoice,  and  clap  their  hands."" 

When  Eve  plucked  the  forbidden  fruit  and  ate  it,  Milton  says : 

"Earth  felt  the  wound ;  and  Nature  from  her  seat 
Sighing,  through  all  her  works  gave  signs  of  woe." 

Special  Facilities  in  English.  —  We  have  in  English  special  facili- 
ties for  the  use  of  this  figure,  in  consequence  of  the  peculiarity  of 
our  language  in  regard  to  gender.  In  most  languages,  masculine 
and  feminine  are  attributed  indiscriminately  to  animate  and  inani- 
mate objects,  to  persons  and  to  things.  In  Latin,  for  instance,  the 
words  for  ocean,  river,  mountain,  garden,  and  field  are  masculine ;  the 
words  for  island,  tree,  moon,  star,  night,  and  light  are  feminine.  But 
in  English,  the  masculine  and  feminine  genders  are  limited  to  living 
beings  that  have  sex,  and  the  masculine  and  feminine  pronouns  are 
used  only  in  reference  to  such  beings,  that  is,  to  persons  and  the 
more  distinguished  animals.  Hence  the  use  of  these  pronouns  is 
always  associated  with  the  idea  of  personality.  In  the  sentence, 
♦*  Nature  through  all  her  works  gave  signs  of  woe,"  the  feminine 
pronoun  gives  notice  to  us  that  Nature  is  personified.  In  this  way, 
by  simply  using  the  masculine  and  feminine  pronouns  in  reference 
to  inanimate  objects,  we  may  at  any  time  produce  a  lower  species  of 
personification,  and  thus  give  a  slight  elevation  to  the  style. 

"  The  sun  rose  in  his  splendor." 

"  Religion  sheds  upon  us  her  benign  influence." 

Personification  is  of  various  degrees. 

The  lowest  form  of  Personification  is  that  produced  by  adjectives. 
In  this  form,  the  qualities  of  living  beings  are  ascribed  to  inanimate 
objects. 

We  speak  of  a  raging  storm,  a  deceitful  disease,  a  cruel  disaster,  a  dying  lamp,  the 
tmiling  year,  the  thirsty  ground. 

A  form  of  Personification  somewhat  higher  than  the  foregoing  is 
that  produced  by  verbs.  In  this  form,  inanimate  objects  are  intro- 
duced as  performing  the  actions  of  living  beings. 

"The  mountains  and  the  hills  shall  break  forth  before  you  into  singing,  and  ali 
the  tro«ii  of  th«  field  shall  elap  thuir  huudB."    (Isa.  Hi :  12.) 


FIGURES  —  HYPERBOLE.  169 

These  ^'vo  lower  kinds  of  Personification  are  a  species  of  Meta- 
phor. They  may  be  used  when  there  is  only  a  slight  degree  of 
elevation  above  the  ordinary  tenor  of  discourse. 

The  third  and  highest  form  of  Personification  is  that  in  which  it 
is  combined  with  Apostrophe.  In  such  a  case,  an  inanimate  object 
is  personified,  and  is  at  the  same  time  addressed. 

"  Put  on  thy  strength,  0  Zion ;  put  on  thy  beautiful  garments,  0  Jerusalem,  the 
holy  city."     (Isa.  52 :  1.) 

A  fine  p^«.mple  of  this  occurs  in  Wordsworth's  Song  at  the  Feast 
of  Brougham  Castle : 

Armour  rusting  in  his  halls 

On  the  blood  of  Clifford  calls ;  — 

"  Quell  the  Scot,"  exclaims  the  Lanoe; 

•'  Bear  me  to  the  heart  of  France," 

Is  the  longing  of  the  Shield, 

"  Tell  thy  name,  thou  trembling  field :  ^ 

Field  of  death,  where'er  thou  be, 

Grace  them  with  our  victory ! "  Ac. 

This  highest  form  of  the  figure  should  be  used  only  in  cases  of 
strong  emotion. 

XII.  HYPERBOLE. 

Hyperbole  is  exaggeration.  It  consists  in  representing 
things  to  be  either  greater  or  less,  better  or  worse,  than 
they  really  are.  The  object  of  Hyperbole  is  to  make  the 
thought  more  effective  by  overstating  it. 

Not  to  be  taken  literally.  —  This  overstatement  is  not  intended 
to  be  accepted  as  literally  true,  any  more  than  metaphors  and  per- 
sonifications are  to  be  accepted  as  true ;  but  it  shows  that  the  writer 
or  speaker  is  strongly  impressed  with  the  object,  and  it  makes 
thereby  a  correspondingly  strong  impression  on  us. 

Example.  — When  we  read  of  "  waves  mountain  Jngfi,"  we  know  that  no  waves  ever 
reached  that  altitude,  and  yet  we  get  from  the  expression  a  better  idea  of  the  effect 
of  the  storm  upon  the  shipwrecked  mariner  than  if  he  had  stated  the  exact  height 
of  the  waves  in  feet  and  inches. 

Caution.  — In  order  that  Hyperbole  may  be  used  with  proper  effect, 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  go  into  extravagance  of  expression.  In 
that  case  the  effect  is  exactly  the  opposite  of  what  the  writer  desires. 
Unless  the  reader  is  prepared  for  the  strong  expressions  by  what 
has  gone  before,  and  is  himself  somewhat  excited,  the  Hyperbole  is 
received  as  mere  rant  and  bombast. 
16* 


170  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

A  Distinction  is  to  be  observed  also  between  Hyperbole  produced 
by  the  imagination  and  that  produced  by  passion.  Tlie  former  is 
comparatively  feeble  and  moderate.  The  latter  admits  of  much 
greater  exaggeration  in  the  language.  A  man,  too,  when  speaking 
in  his  own  proper  person,  and  expressing  his  own  feelings  and  emo- 
tions, may  use  much  more  exaggerated  language  than  another  would 
in  speaking  of  him.  The  language  of  £|,ction,  in  other  words,  may 
be  much  stronger  than  the  language  of  description.  Hence  Hyper- 
bole is  especially  allowable  in  Dramatic  poetry  and  in  Oratory,  and 
nowhere  do  we  find  better  or  bolder  specimens  of  it  than  in  Shak- 
speare. 

Hyperbole  is  much  used  in  Burlesque.  The  exaggeration  of  what 
is  ludicrous  in  any  object  adds  to  the  efi^ect.  Voltaire  says  very 
wittily  of  the  English,  that  they  "gain  two  hours  a  day  by  clipping 
words."  He  refers  to  the  habit  of  saying  can't  for  can  not,  don't 
for  do  not,  and  other  like  abbreviations. 

The  Hyperbole  in  which  school-girls  indulge  in  common  conversa- 
tion might  perhaps  be  excused  as  harmless  trifling,  did  it  not  too 
often  lead  to  a  settled  habit  of  using  language  in  this  loose  manner. 
The  woman  continues  the  extravagant  phrases  of  the  girl, — is  awfully 
tired,  adores  sweet-potatoes,  has  a  splendid  mince-pie  for  dinner,  a 
gorgeous  bonnet,  a  magnificent  pair  of  gloves,  and  numberless  other 
absurdities  of  the  same  sort. 

XIII.    IRONY. 

Irony  consists  in  ridiculing  an  object  under  a  pretence  of 
praising  it.  The  language  in  its  literal  acceptation  is  ex- 
actly the  opposite  of  what  the  author  means.  The  true 
meaning  is  indicated  mainly  by  the  tone  of  the  voice,  the 
words  being  spoken  with  a  sneer,  and  hence  it  is  sometimes 
called  a  figure  of  Elocution.  But  there  is  always  in  such 
cases  something  either  in  the  construction  of  the  sentence, 
or  in  the  attendant  circumstances,  to  show  that  the  words 
are  to  be  taken  ironically,  not  literally. 

Irony  is  a  very  effective  weapon  of  attack,  the  form  of  the  lan- 
guage being  such  as  scarcely  to  admit  of  reply. 

The  Bible  containa  aomR  striking  examples  of  Irony.  Job  says  (12:  2),  "No  doubt 
but  ye  are  the  people,  and  wisdom  shall  die  with  yon!"  Elijah  (1  Kings  17:  27) 
eay«  tauntingly  to  the  pricHts  of  B:ial,  "Cry  aloud:  for  he  is  a  god;  either  he  is  talk- 


FIGURES  —  IRONY.  171 

Ing,  or  he  is  pursuing,  or  he  is  in  a  journey,  or  peradventure  he  sleepeth,  and  must 
be  waked ! " 

Cicero  calls  Verres,  yrhojvas  notorious  for  his  rapacity,  "The  upright  and  honest 
praetor  of  Sicily !  " 

A  common  neglect  in  the  training  of  children  is  thus  ridiculed:  "Although  I 
would  have  you  early  instil  into  your  children's  hearts  the  love  of  cruelty,  yet  by  no 
means  call  it  by  its  true  name,  but  encourage  them  in  it  under  the  name  of  fun." 

Antony's  speech  over  the  dead  body  of  Caesar,  in  the  play  of 
Julius  Caesar,  contains  some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  Irony  to  be 
found  anywhere: 

"  Here,  under  leave  of  Brutus  and  the  rest, 
(For  Brutus  is  an  honorable  man. 
So  are  they  all,  all  honorable  men,) 
Come  I  to  speak  in  Caesar's  funeral. 
He  was  my  friend,  faithful  and  just  to  me: 
But  Brutus  says  he  was  ambitious; 
And  Brutus  is  an  honorable  man. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[The  passages  which  follow  contain  figures  of  various  kinds.  The  student  is  re- 
quired first  to  point  out  and  analyze  the  figure  or  figure's  in  each  passage,  and  then 
to  express  the  meaning  in  plain  language  without  figure.] 

1.  Government  patronage  sliould  not  be  so  dispensed  as  to  train 
up  a  population  to  the  one  pursuit  of  boring  gimlet-holes  into  the 
treasury,  and  then  of  seeking  to  enlarge  them,  as  rapidly  as  possible, 
into  auger-holes.  —  New -York  Tribune. 

2.  For  we  know  that  if  our  earthly  house  of  this  tabernacle  were 
dissolved,  we  have  a  building  of  God,  a  house  not  made  with  hands, 
eternal  in  the  heavens.  For  in  this  we  groan,  earnestly  desiring  to 
be  clothed  upon  with  our  house  which  is  from  heaven.  —  2  Cor.  5: 
1-3. 

3.  If  any  man  among  you  seemeth  to  be  religious,  and  bridleth 
not  his  tongue,  but  deceiveth  his  own  heart,  this  man's  religion  is 
vain.  —  Jame.f  1  :   26. 

4.  And  it  shall  come  to  pass  in  that  day  that  the  mountains  shall 
drop  down  new  wine,  and  the  hills  shall  flow  with  milk.  —  Joel  3:  18. 

5.  Poor  Soul,  the  centre  of  my  sinful  earth, 

Fool'd  by  those  rebel  powers  that  thee  array, 
"Why  dost  thou  pine  within  and  suifer  dearth. 

Painting  thy  outward  walls  so  costly  gay? 
Why  so  large  cost,  having  so  short  a  lease. 

Dost  thou  upon  thy  fading  mansion  spend? 
Shall  worms,  inheritors  of  this  excess. 

Eat  up  thy  charge  ?    is  this  thy  .body's  end  ?  —  Shakapeare. 


172  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORIC. 

6.  When  Israel  went  out  of  Egypt,  the  house  of  Jacob  from  a 
people  of  strange  language,  Judah  was  his  sanctuary,  and  Israel  his 
dominion.  The  sea  saw  it,  and  fled:  Jordan  wHs  driven  back.  The 
mountains  skipped  like  rams,  and  the  little  hills  like  lambs.  What  ail- 
eth  thee,  0  thou  sea,  that  thou  fleddest?  thou  Jordan,  that  thou  wast 
driven  back?  ye  mountains,  that  ye  skipped  like  rams,  and  ye  little 
hills,  like  lambs?  Tremble,  thou  earth,  at  the  presence  of  the  Lord, 
at  the  presence  of  the  God  of  Jacob.  —  Ps.  114 :  1-7. 

7.  Ye  are  our  epistle  written  in  our  hearts,  known  and  read  of  all 
men.— 2  Cor.  3:  2. 

8.  My  hopes  and  fears 
Start  up  alarm'd,  and  o'er  life's  narrow  verge 

Look  down — on  what?     A  fathomless  abyss.  —  Young. 

9.  Thrice  unhappy  he  who,  being  born  to  see  things  as  they  might 
be,  is  schooled  by  circumstances  to  see  them  as  people  say  they  are, 
—  to  read  God  in  a  prose  translation.  Such  was  Dryden's  lot,  and 
Buch,  for  a  good  part  of  his  days,  it  was  by  his  own  choice.  He 
who  was  of  a  stature  to  snatch  the  torch  of  life  that  flashes  from 
lifted  hand  to  hand  along  the  generations,  over  the  heads  of  inferior 
men,  chose  rather  to  be  a  link-boy  to  the  stews.  — Lowell. 

10.  Strange  cozenage !  none  would  live  past  years  again, 
Yet  all  hope  pleasure  in  what  yet  remain, 

And  from  the  dregs  of  life  think  to  receive 

What  the  first  sprightly  running  could  not  give. — Dryden. 

11.  The  "  first  sprightly  running"  of  Dryden's  vintage  was,  it  must 
be  confessed,  a  little  muddy,  if  not  beery ;  but  if  his  own  soil  did 
not.  produce  grapes  of  the  choicest  flavor,  he  knew  where  they  were 
to  be  had ;  and  his  product,  like  sound  wine,  grew  better  the  longer 
it  stood  upon  the  lees. — Lowell. 

12.  Each  moment  has  its  sickle,  emulous 

Of  Time's  enormous  scythe,  whose  ample  sweep 
Strikes  empires  from  the  root:    each  moment  plays 
His  little  weapon  in  the  narrower  sphere 
Of  sweet  domestic  comfort,  and  cuts  down 
The  fairest  bloom  of  sublunary  bliss.  —  Young. 

13.  Zeal  and  duty  are  not  slow, 

But  on  occasion's  forelock  watchful  wait.  —  MUton. 

14.  We  always  feel  his  [Dryden's]  epoch  in  him,  that  he  was  the 
lock  which  let  our  language  down  from  its  point  of  highest  poetry 
to  its  level  of  easiest  and  most  gentle  flowing  prose  —  Lowell. 

16.  To-day  is  so  like  yesterday,  it  cheats; 

We  take  the  lying  sister  for  the  same.  —  Your^. 


FIGURES  —  EXAMPLES.  173 

16.  >*Is  [Dryden's]  contemporary,  Dr.  Heylin,  said  of  French  cooks, 
that  <'tneir  trade  was  not  to  feed  the  belly,  but  the  palate."  Dry- 
den  waj  a  great  while  in  learning  this  secret,  as  available  in  good 
■writing  as  in  cookery.  He  strove  after  it,  but  his  thoroughly 
English  nature,  to  the  last,  would  too  easily  content  itself  with  serv- 
ing up  the  honest  beef  of  his  thought,  without  regard  to  daintiness 
or  flavor  in  the  dressing  of  it.  Of  the  best  English  poetry,  it  might 
be  saict  that  it  is  understanding  aerated  by  imagination.  In  Dryden 
the  solid  part  too  often  refused  to  mix  kindly  with  the  leaven,  either 
remaining  lumpish  or  rising  to  a  hasty  puffiness.  —  Lowell. 

17    Truth,  crush'd  to  earth,  shall  rise  again; 
The  eternal  years  of  God  are  hers ; 
But  Error,  wounded,  writhes  with  pain. 
And  dies  among  its  worshippers.  —  Bryant. 

\h.  In  his  [Dryden's]  prose  you  come  upon  passages  that  persuade 
you  he  is  a  poet,  in  spite  of  his  verses  so  often  turning  state's  evi- 
dence against  him  as  to  convince  you  he  is  none.  He  is  a  prose- 
wriier,  with  a  kind  of  ^olian  attachment  — Lowell. 

19.  Hast  thou  no  friend  to  set  thy  mind  abroach  ? 

Good  sense  will  stagnate.     Thoughts,  shut  up,  want  air, 
And  spoil,  like  bales  unopened  to  the  sun. —  Young. 

20.  The  smoothness  of  too  many  rhymed  pentameters  is  that  of  thin 
ice  over  shallow  water :  so  long  as  we  glide  along  rapidly,  all  is 
well ;  but  if  we  dwell  a  moment  on  any  one  spot,  we  may  find  our- 
selves knee-deep  in  mud. —  Lowell. 

21.  Thought  in  the  mine  may  come  forth  gold  or  dross; 
When  coin'd  in  words  we  know  its  real  worth.  —  Young. 

22.  He  began  his  dramatic  career,  as  usual,  by  rowing  against  the 
strong  current  of  his  nature,  and  pulled  only  the  more  doggedly  th« 
more  he  felt  himself  swept  down  the  stream.  — Lowell. 

23.  Speech  ventilates  our  intellectual  fire ; 
Speech  burnishes  our  mental  magazine ; 
Brightens  for  ornament,  and  whets  for  use.  —  Young. 

24.  Haste  thee,  nymph,  and  bring  with  thee 
Jest  and  youthful  jollity, 

Quibs,  and  cranks,  and  wanton  wiles. 
Nods,  and  becks,  and  wreathed  smiles. 
Such  as  hang  on  Hebe's  cheek, 
And  love  to  live  in  dimple  sleek: 
Sport  that  wrinkled  Care  derides, 
And  Laughter  holding  both  his  sides.  —  Milton, 
12 


174  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

25.  Heaven  from  all  creatures  hides  the  book  of  fate, 

All  but  the  page  prescribed  their  present  state.  —  Pope. 

26.  I  should  say  that  Dryden  is  more  apt  to  dilate  our  fancy  than 
our  thought,  as  great  poets  have  the  gift  of  doing.  But  if  he  have  not 
the  potent  alchemy  that  transmutes  the  lead  of  our  commonplace 
associations  into  gold,  as  Shakspeare  knows  how  to  do  so  easily, 
yet  his  sense  is  always  up  to  the  sterling  standard ;  and  though  he 
has  not  added  so  muCh  as  some  have  done  to  the  stock  of  bullion 
vrhich  others  afterwards  coin  and  put  in  circulation,  there  are  few 
who  have  minted  so  many  phrases  that  are  still  a  part  of  our  daily 
currency.  —  Lowell. 

27.  The  spider's  most  attenuated  web 

Is  cord  —  is  cable  to  man's  tender  tie 

Of  earthly  bliss ;    it  breaks  at  every  breeze.  —  Young. 

28.  Weariness 

Can  snore  upon  the  flint,  when  resty  sloth 
Finds  the  down-pillow  hard.  —  Shakspeare. 

29.  Her  tresses,  loose  behind, 

Play  on  her  neck,  and  wanton  in  the  wind ; 
The  rising  blushes  which  her  cheek  o'erspread 
Are  opening  roses  in  the  lily's  bed.  —  Got/. 

30.  There  are  whole  veins  of  diamonds  in  thine  eyes, 

Might  furnish  crowns  for  all  the  queens  of  earth.  —  Bailer/. 

31.  Faith  builds  a  bridge  across  the  gulf  of  death.  —  Young. 

32.  Who  builds  his  hope  in  air  of  your  good  looks, 
Lives  like  a  drunken  sailor  on  a  mast; 
Ready,  with  every  nod,   to  tumble  down 

Into  the  fatal  bowels  of  the  deep.  —  Shakspeare. 
83.  For' I  am  persuaded  that  neither  death,  nor  life,  nor  angels, 
nor  principalities,  nor  powers,  nor  things  present,  nor  things  to 
come,  nor  height,  nor  depth,  nor  any  other  creature  shall  be  able  to 
separate  us  from  the  love  of  God,  which  is  in  Christ  Jesus  our  Lord. 
—  Romans  8:  38,  39. 

34.  The  soul's  dark  cottage,  battered  and  decayed. 

Lets  in  new  light  through  chinks  that  Time  has  made. 

Waller. 
86.  I  scarcely  understand  my  own  intent; 

But,  silk-worm  like,  so  long  within  have  wrought, 
That  I  am  lost  in  my  own  web  of  thought.  —  Dryden,  ^ 
86.  One  sally  of  a  hero's  soul, 

Does  all  the  military  art  control. 


FIGURES  —  EXAMPLES.  175 

While  timorous  wit  goes  round,  or  fords  the  shore, 

He  shoots  the  gulf,  and  is  already  o'er, 

And,  when  the  enthusiastic  fit  is  spent. 

Looks  back  amazed  at  what  he  underwent.  —  Dryden. 

37.  Who  shall  lay  anything  to  the  charge  of  God's  elect?  It  is 
God  that  justifieth.  Who  is  he  that  condemneth?  It  is  Christ  that 
died,  yea  rather,  that  is  risen  again,  who  is  even  at  the  right  hand 
of  God,  who  also  maketh  intercession  for  us.  Who  shall  separate  us 
from  the  love  of  Christ?  shall  tribulation,  or  distress,  or  persecu- 
tion, or  famine,  or  nakedness,  or  peril,  or  sword  ?  —  Romans  8:  33-35. 

38.  Our  Garrick  's  a  salad,  for  in  him  we  see 
Oil,  vinegar,  sugar,  and  saltness  agree. 

39.  Words  are  the  common  property  of  all  men,  yet  from  words 
those  architects  of  immortality  pile  up  temples  that  shall  outlive 
pyramids:  the  leaf  of  the  papyrus  shall  become  a  Shinar,  stately 
with  towers,  round  which  the  Deluge  of  ages  roars  in  vain. 

40.  And  yet  the  soul,  shut  up  in  her  dark  room. 
Viewing  so  clear  abroad,  at  home  sees  nothing; 
But  like  a  mole  in  earth,  busy  and  blind, 
Works  all  her  folly  up  and  casts  it  outward 

In  the  world's  open  view.  —  Dryden. 

41.  But  after  all,  he  [Dryden]  is  best  upon  a  level,  —  table-land, 
it  is  true,  and  a  very  high  level,  but  still  somewhere  between  the 
loftier  peaks  of  inspiration  and  the  plain  of  every-day  life.  —  Lowell. 

42.  Of  no  distemper,  of  no  blast  he  died. 

But  fell  like  autumn  fruit  that  mellowed  long. 

E'en  wondered  at  because  he  dropt  no  sooner ; 

Fate  seemed  to  wind  him  up  for  fourscore  years ; 

Yet  freshly  ran  he  on  ten  winters  more. 

Till,  like  a  clock  worn  out  with  eating  Time, 

The  wheels  of  weary  life  at  last  stood  still. — Dryden. 

43.  For  I  am  now  so  sunk  from  what  I  was. 
Thou  find'st  me  at  my  lowest  water-mark. 
The  rivers  that  ran  in  and  raised  my  fortunes 
Are  all  dried  up,  or  take  another  course ; 
What  I  have  left  is  from  my  native  spring ; 
I've  a  heart  still  that  swells  in  scorn  of  Fate, 
And  lifts  me  to  my  banks.  —  Dryden. 

44.  Canst  thou  draw  out  leviathan  with  a  hook?  or  his  tongue 
with  a  cord  which  thou  lettest  down?  Canst  thou  put  a  hook  in  his 
nose  ?  or  bore  his  jaw  through  with  a  thorn  ?  will  he  make  many 
•upplications  unto  thee  ?  will  he  speak  soft  words  unto  thee  ?  will 


176  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETOEIC. 

he  make  a  covenant  with  thee  ?  wilt  thou  take  him  for  a  servant  for- 
ever? wilt  thou  play  with  him  as  with  a  bird?  or  wilt  thou  bind 
him  for  thy  maidens  ?  shall  the  companions  make  a  banquet  of  him  ? 
shall  they  part  him  among  the  merchants?  canst  thou  fill  his  skin 
with  barbed  irons  ?  or  his  head  with  fish-spears? — Job  41 :   1-7. 

46.  I  do  not  like  to  say  it,  but  he  has  sometimes  smothered  the  child- 
like simplicity  of  Chaucer  under  feather-beds  of  verbiage.  —  Lowell. 

46.  His  [Dryden's]  phrase  is  always  a  short-cut  to  his  sense,  for  his 
estate  was  too  spacious  for  him  to  need  that  trick  of  winding  the 
path  of  his  thought  about,  and  planting  it  out  with  clumps  of  epithet, 
by  which  the  landscape-gardeners  of  literature  give  to  a  paltry  half- 
acre  the  air  of  a  park.  —  Lowell. 

47.  If  circumstances  could  ever  make  a  great  national  poet,  here  were 
all  the  elements  mingled  at  melting-heat  in  the  alembic,  and  the 
lucky  moment  of  projection  was  clearly  come.  —  Lowell. 

48.  Above  all,  we  may  esteem  it  lucky  that  he  [Shakspeare]  found 
words  ready  to  his  use,  original  and  untarnished,  — types  of  thought, 
whose  sharp  edges  were  unworn  by  repeated  impressions.  —  Lowell. 

49.  There  is  much  that  is  deciduous  in  books,  but  all  that  gives  them 
a  title  to  rank  as  literature  in  the  highest  sense  is  perennial.  — Lowell. 

50.  Am  I  not  an  apostle?  am  I  not  free?  have  I  not  seen  Jesus 
Christ  our  Lord  ?  are  not  ye  my  work  in  the  Lord  ?  have  we  not 
power  to  eat  and  to  drink?  have  we  not  power  to  lead  about  a  sister, 
a  wife,  as  well  as  other  apostles,  and  as  the  brethren  of  the  Lord, 
and  Cephas  ?  Or  I  only  and  Barnabas,  have  not  we  power  to  foi-bear 
working?  Who  goeth  a  warfare  any  time  at  his  own  charges?  who 
planteth  a  vineyard,  and  eateth  not  of  the  fruit  thereof?  or  who 
feedeth  a  flock,  and  eateth  not  of  the  milk  of  the  flock  ?  Say  I  these 
things  as  a  man,  or  saith  not  the  law  the  same  also?  —  1  Cor.  9:  1-8. 

61.  Still  thy  love,  0  Christ  arisen. 

Yearns  to  reach  these  souls  in  prison : 
Through  all  depths  of  sin  and  loss 
Drops  the  plummet  of  thy  Cross ! 
Never  yet  abyss  was  found 
Deeper  than  that  Cross  could  sound. 

52.  There  are  some  thinkers  about  whom  we  always  feel  easy, 
because  they  never  have  a  thought  of  sufficient  magnitude  to  be  made 
uncomfortable  by  its  possession. 

53.  Save  me,  0  God;  for  the  waters  are  come  into  my  soul.  I. sink 
in  deep  mire,  where  there  is  no  standing:  1  am  come  into  deep 
waters,  where  the  floods  overflow  me.  — Pk.  69:   1,  2. 

64.  As  smoke  is  driven  away,  so  drive  them  away :  as  wax  melteth 


FIGURES  — EXAMPLES.  177 

before  the  fire,  so  let  the  wicked  perish  at  the  presence  of  God.  — 
Ps.  68 :  2. 

55.  We  do  not  mean  what  is  technically  called  a  living  language, — 
the  contrivance,  hollow  as  a  speaking-trumpet,  by  which  breathing 
and  moving  bipeds,  even  now,  sailing  o'er  life's  solemn  main,  are 
enabled  to  hail  each  other  and  make  known  their  mutual  shortness 
of  mental  stores,  —  but  one  that  is  still  hot  from  the  hearts  and 
brains  of  a  people,  not  hardened  yet,  but  moltenly  ductile  to  new 
shapes  of  sharp  and  clear  relief  in  the  moulds  of  new  thoughts.  — 
Lowell. 

56.  What  was  of  greater  import,  no  arbitrary  line  had  been  drawn 
between  high  words  and  low ;  vulgar  then  meant  simply  what  was 
common ;  poetry  had  not  been  aliened  from  the  people  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  an  Upper  House  of  vocables,  alone  entitled  to  move  in 
the  stately  ceremonials  of  verse,  and  privileged  from  arrest  while 
they  forever  keep  the  promise  of  meaning  to  the  ear  and  break  it  to 
the  sense.  —  Lowell. 

57.  I  by  no  means  intend  to  say  that  he  [Shakspeare]  did  not  enrich 
it  [the  language],  or  that  any  inferior  man  could  have  dipped  the 
same  words  out  of  the  great  poet's  inkstand.  But  he  enriched  it 
only  by  the  natural  expansion  and  exhilaration  of  which  it  was  con- 
scious, in  yielding  to  the  mastery  of  a  genius  that  could  turn  and 
wind  it  like  a  fiery  Pegasus,  making  it  feel  its  life  in  every  limb.  — 
Loivell. 

58.  As  the  hart  panteth  after  the  water-brooks,  so  panteth  my 
soul  after  thee,  0  God.  —Ps.  42:   1. 

59.  Stand  therefore,  having  your  loins  girt  about  with  truth,  and 
having  on  the  breast-plate  of  righteousness,  and  your  feet  shod  with 
the  preparation  of  the  gospel  of  peace;  above  all,  taking  the  shield 
of  faith,  wherewith  ye  shall  be  able  to  quench  all  the  fiery  darts  of 
the  wicked.  And  take  the  helmet  of  salvation,  and  the  sword  of  the 
Spirit,  which  is  the  word  of  God.  —  Ephes.  6:   14-17. 

60.  Scarce  one  [commentator  on  Shakspeare]  but  thought  he  could 
gauge  like  an  ale-firkin  that  intuition  whose  edging  shallows  may 
have  been  sounded,  but  whose  abysses,  stretching  down  amid  the 
sunless  roots  of  Being  and  Consciousness,  mock  the  plummet.  — 
Lowell.  * 

61.  The  Gothic  Shakspeare  often  superimposed  upon  the  slender  col- 
umn of  a  single  word,  that  seems  to  twist  under  it,  but  does  not,  — 
like  the  quaint  shafts  in  cloisters,  — a  weight  of  meaning  which  the 
modern  architects  of  sentences  would  consider  wholly  unjustifiable 
by  correct  principle.  —  Lowell. 

16 


178  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

62.  His  [Wordsworth's]  longer  poems  are  Egyptian  sand-wastes, 
with  here  and  there  an  oasis  of  exquisite  greenery^  a  grand  image 
Sphinx-like,  half  buried  in  drifting  commonplaces,  or  the  solitary 
Pompey's  Pillar  of  some  towering  thought.  —  Loioell. 

63.  Her  angel's  face, 

As  the  great  eye  of  heaven,  shined  bright, 
And  made  a  sunshine  in  the  shady  place ; 
Did  never  mortal  eye  behold  such  heavenly  grace.  —  Spenser. 

64.  Who  has  so  succeeded  in  imitating  him  [Shakspeare]  as  to 
remind  us  of  him  by  even  so  much  as  the  gait  of  a  single  verse  ? 
Those  magnificent  crystallizations  of  feeling  and  phrase,  basaltic 
masses,  molten  and  interfused  by  the  primal  fires  of  passion,  are 
not  to  be  reproduced  by  the  slow  experiments  of  the  laboratory 
striving  to  parody  creation  with  artifice.  —  Lowell. 

65.  Love  is  the  ladder  on  which  we  climb 
To  a  likeness  with  God. 

66.  Onions  that  should  water  this  grief. — Shakspeare, 

67.  I,  writing  thus,  am  still  what  men  call  young; 
I  have  not  so  far  left  the  coasts  of  life 

To  travel  inland,  that  I  cannot  hear 

That  murmur  of  the  water  infinite 

Which  unweaned  babies  smile  at  in  their  sleep, 

When  wondered  at  for  smiling. — Mrs.  Browning, 

68.  Shakspeare  does  not  always  speak  in  that  intense  way  that 
flames  up  in  Lear  and  Macbeth  through  the  rifts  of  a  soil  volcanic 
with  passion.  He  allows  us  here  and  there  the  repose  of  a  common- 
place character,  the  consoling  distraction  of  a  humorous  one.  He 
knows  how  to  be  equable  and  grand  without  efl'ort,  so  that  we  forget 
the  altitude  of  thought  to  which  he  has  led  us,  because  the  slowly 
receding  slope  of  a  mountain  stretching  downward  by  ample  grada- 
tions gives  a  less  startling  impression  of  height  than  to  look  over  the 
edge  of  a  ravine  that  makes  but  a  wrinkle  in  its  flank.  —  Lowell. 

69.  The  language  [in  Shakspeare's  time]  was  still  fresh  from 
those  sources  at  too  great  a  distance  from  which  it  becomes  fit  only 
for  the  service  of  prose.  Wherever  he  dipped,  it  came  up  clear  and 
sparkling,  undefiled  as  yet  by  the  drainage  of  literary  factories,  or 
of  those  dye-houses  where  the  machine-woven  fabrics  of  sham  cul- 
ture are  colored  up  to  the  last  desperate  style  of  sham  sentiment.  — 
Lowell. 

70.  With  Shakspeare  the  plot  is  an  interior  organism,  in  Jonson  an 
external  contrivance.  It  is  the  diff'erence  between  man  and  tortoise. 
In  the  one  the  osseous  structure  is  out  of  sight,  indeed,  but  sustaini 


FIGURES  —  EXAMPLES.  179 

the  flesh  and  blood  that  envelop  iT,  while  the  other  is  boxed  up  and 
imprisoned  in  his  bones.  —  Loioell. 

71.  The  mountains  saw  thee,  and  they  trembled:  the  overflowing 
of  the  water  passed  by :  the  deep  uttered  his  voice,  and  lifted  up  his 
hands  on  high.  — Habakkuk  3  :   10. 

72.  The  depth  saith,  It  is  not  in  me :  and  the  sea  saith,  It  is  not 
with  me.— Job  28:  14. 

73.  In  truth,  we  are  under  a  deception  similar  to  that  which  mis- 
leads the  traveller  in  the  Arabian  desert.  Beneath  the  caravan,  all 
is  dry  and  bare ;  but  far  in  advance,  and  far  in  the  rear,  is  the  sem- 
blance of  refreshing  waters.  The  pilgrims  hasten  forward,  and  find 
nothing  but  sand  where,  an  hour  before,  they  had  seen  a  lake.  They 
turn  their  eyes,  and  see  a  lake  where,  an  hour  before,  they  were 
toiling  through  sand.  —  Macaulay. 

74.  For  weeks  the  clouds  had  raked  the  hills 

And  vexed  the  vales  with  raining, 
And  all  the  woods  were  sad  with  mist,  , 

And  all  the  brooks  complaining. 
At  last,  a  sudden  night-storm  tore 

The  mountain-veils  asunder, 
And  swept  the  valleys  clean  before 

The  besom  of  the  thunder,  —  Whittier. 

75.  In  such  slipshod  housekeeping  men  are  their  own  largest 
creditors  ;  they  find  it  easy  to  stave  off"  utter  bankruptcy  of  conscience 
by  taking  up  one  unpaid  promise  with  another  larger,  and  at  heavier 
interest,  till  such  self-swindling  becomes  habitual  and  by  degrees 
almost  painless.  How  did  Coleridge  discount  his  own  notes  of  this 
kind  with  less  and  less  specie  as  the  figures  lengthened  on  the  paper! 
—  Loivell. 

76.  [Such  characters]  cannot  determine  on  any  course  of  action, 
because  they  are  always,  as  it  were,  standing  at  the  cross-roads,  and 
see  too  well  the  disadvantages  of  every  one  of  them.  It  is  not  that 
they  are  incapable  of  resolve,  but  somehow  the  band  between  the  mo- 
tive power  and  the  operative  faculties  is  relaxed  and  loose.  The  en- 
gine works,  but  the  machinery  it  should  drive  stands  still.  —  Lowell. 

11.  Horatio  is  the  only  complete  man  in  the  play  —  solid,  well-knit, 
and  true ;  a  noble,  quiet  nature,  with  that  highest  of  all  qualities, 
judgment,  always  sane  and  prompt;  who  never  drags  his  anchors  for 
any  wind  of  opinion  or  fortune,  but  grips  all  the  closer  to  the  reality 
of  things.  —  Lowell. 

78.  Hamlet  is  continually  drawing  bills  on  the  future,  secured  by  his 
promise  of  himself  to  himself,  which  he  can  never  redeem. — Lowell. 


180  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

79.  I  wake,   emerging  from  a  Sea  of  dreams 
Tumultuous,  where  my  wreck'd,  desponding  thought 
From  wave  to  wave  of  fancied  misery 

At  random  drove,  her  helm  of  reason  lost.  —  Young. 

80.  Night, 
E'en  in  the  zenith  of  her  dark  domain, 

Is  sunshine  to  the  color  of  my  fate.  —  Young. 

81.  Deep  on  his  front  engraven 
Deliberation  sat,  and  public  care.  —  Milton. 

82.  Canst  thou  not  minister  to  a  mind  diseased; 
Pluck  from  the  memory  a  rooted  sorrow ; 
Raze  out  the  written  tablets  of  the  brain; 
Cleanse  the  foul  bosom  of  that  perilous  stuff, 
Which  weighs  upon  the  heart?  —  Shakspeare. 

83.  Let  come  what  will,  I  mean  to  bear  it  out, 
And  either  live  with  glorious  victory. 

Or  die  with  fame,  renowned  for  chivalry. 
*He  is  not  worthy  of  the  honey-comb, 
That  shuns  the  hive  because  the  bees  have  stung.  —  Shakspeare. 

84.  My  May  of  life 

Is  fallen  into  the  sere,  the  yellow  leaf. — Shakspeare. 

85.  'Tis  with  our  judgments  as  our  watches:  none 
Are  just  alike,  yet  each  believes  his  own. — Fope. 

86.  Self  is  the  medium  least  refined  of  all. 

Through  which  opinion's  searching  beams  can  fall; 

And,  passing  there,  the  clearest,  steadiest  ray 

Will  tinge  its  light,  and  turn  its  line  astray.  —  Moore. 

87.  His  tongue 
Dropp'd  manna,  and  could  make  the  worst  appear 
The  better  reason,  to  perplex  and  dash 
Maturest  counsels.  — Milton. 

88.  Here  rills  of  oily  eloquence  in  soft 

Meanders  lubricate  the  course  they  take.  —  Cowper. 

89.  Oh !    as  the  bee  upon  the  flower,  I  hang 

Upon  the  honey  of  thy  eloquent  tongue. — Bulwer. 

90.  'Tis  an  old  maxim  in  the  schools. 
That  flattery  's  the  food  of  fools ; 
Yet  now  and  then  your  men  of  wit 
Will  condescend  to  take  a  bit. — Sioift. 

91.  I've  touched  the  highest  point  of  all  my  greatness; 
And  from  the  full  meridian  of  my  glory 

I  haste  now  to  my  setting. — Shakspeare. 


FIGURES  —  EXAMPLES.  181 

92.  Of  praise  a  mere  glutton,  he  swallowed  what  came, 
And  the  puff  of  a  dunce,  he  mistook  it  for  fame ; 
Till,  his  relish  grown  callous  almost  to   disease, 

Who  pepper'd  the  highest  was  surest  to  please.  —  Goldsmith. 

93.  She  looks  as  clear 

As  morning  roses,  newly  washed  in  dew.  —  Shakspeare. 

94.  Let  our  frail  thoughts  dally  with  false  surmise. — Milton. 

95.  He  cast  off  his  friends  as  a  huntsman  his  pack. 

For  he  knew  when  he  wish'd  he   could  whistle  them  back. 

Goldsmith, 

96.  Love  is  a  sudden  blaze  which  soon  decays ; 
Friendship  is  like  the  sun's  eternal  rays ; 
Not  daily  benefits  exhaust  the  flame : 

It  still  is  giving,   and  still  burns  the  same.  —  Gay. 

97.  Friendship  is  not  a  plant  of  hasty  growth. 
Though  planted  in  esteem's  deep  fixed  soil; 
The  gradual  culture  of  kind  intercourse 
Must  bring  it  to  perfection, — Joanna  Baillie. 

98.  There  's  a  divinity  that  shapes  our  ends. 
Rough-hew  them  as  we  will.  —  Shakspeare. 

99.  As  some  tall  cliff,  that  lifts  its  awful  form, 

Swells  from  the  vale,  and  midway  leaves  the  storm  ; 
Tho'  round  its  breast  the  rolling  clouds  are  spread, 
Eternal  sunshine  settles  on  its  head.  —  Goldsmith. 

100.  To  scatter  plenty  o'er  a  smiling  land, 

And  read  their  history  in  a  nation's  eyes.  —  Gray. 

101.  He,  who  ascends  to  mountain-tops  shall  find 

Their  loftiest  peaks  most  wrapt  in  clouds  and  snow ; 
He,  who  surpasses  or  subdues  mankind, 

Must  look  down  on  the  hate  of  those  below. 

Tho'  far  above  the  sun  of  glory  glow, 
And  far  beneath  the  earth  and  ocean  spread, 

Round  him  are  icy  rocks,  and  loudly  blow 
Contending  tempests  on  his  naked  head.  —  Byron. 

102.  Whose  game  was  empires,  and  whose   stakes  were  thrones, 
Whose  table  earth,  whose  dice  were  human  bones, — -  Byron. 

103.  How  oft  when  Paul  has  served  us  with  a  text, 
Has  Plato,  Tully,  Epictetus  preached. 

104.  Ocean  into  tempest  wrought. 

To  waft  a  feather  or  to  drown  a  fly.  — 

105.  0  life,  0  poetry. 
Which  means  life  —  life  !  cogni^aut  of  Uffi 

16* 


182  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Beyond  this  blood-beat,  —  passionate  for  truth 

Beyond  these  senses,  —  poetry,  my  life  — 

My  eagle,  with  both  grappling  feet  still  hot 

From  Zeus's  thunder,  who  has  ravished  me 

Away  from  all  the  shepherds,  sheep,  and  dogs, 

And  set  me  in  the  Olympian  roar  and  round 

Of  luminous  faces,  for  a  cup-bearer, 

To  keep  the  mouths  of  all  the  godheads  moist 

For  everlasting  laughter — I,  myself. 

Half  drunk,  across  the  beaker,  with  their  eyes! 

How  those  gods  look !  — Mrs.  Browning. 

106.  Presence  of  mind  is  greatly  promoted  by  absence  of  body. 

107.  My  life  is  a  wreck.     I  drift  before  the  chilling  blasts  of  ad- 
versity; friends,  home,  wealth  —  I've  lost  them  all. 

108.  If  in  the  morn  of  life,  you  remember  God,  he  will  not  forget 
you  in  your  old  age. 

109.  Born,  lived,  and  died,  sum  up  the  great  epitome  of  man. 

110.  Turn  it,  and  twist  it  as  much  as  you  can, 
She  will  still  be  double  you  [W]  0  man. 

111.  Men  dying  make  their  wills, 

But  wives  escape  a  task  so  sad ; 
Why  should  they  make  what  all  their  lives 
The  gentle  dames  have  had  ? 

112.  If  you  blow  your  neighbor's  fire,  don't  complain  if  the  sparks 
fly  in  your  face. 

113.  0  earth,  so  full  of  dreary  noises  ! 

0  men,  with  wailing  in  your  voices ! 
0  delved  gold,  the  wallers'  heap ! 

0  strife,  0  curse,  that  o'er  it  fall ! 
God  makes  a  silence  through  you  all, 

And  "giveth  his  beloved  sleep."  —  Mrs.  Browning, 

114.  0  dark  and  cruel  deep,  reveal 
The  secret  that  thy  waves  conceal ! 
And  ye  wild  sea-birds  hither  wheel 
And  tell  it  me. 

115.  I  heard  the  trailing  garments  of  the  Night 

Sweep  thro'  her  marble  halls, 

1  saw  her  sable  skirts  all  fringed  with  light 
From  the  celestial  walls.  —  Longfellow. 

116.  May  slighted  woman  turn, 
And  as  the  vine  the  oak  has  shaken  oif. 

Bend  lightly  to  the  leaning  trust  again  ?  —  WiUit. 


FIGURES  —  EXAMPLES.  183 

117.  O'erhead  the  countless  stars 

Like  eyes  of  love  were  beaming, 
Underneath  the  weary  earth 

All  breathless  lay  a-dreaming. 
The  fox-glove  shoots  out  the  green  matted  heather, 

And  hangeth  her  hoods  of  snow, 
She  was  idle  and  slept  till  the  sunshiny  weather, 

But  children  take  longer  to  grow. — Jean  Ingelow. 

118.  Thoughts  which  fix  themselves  deep  in  the  heart  as  meteor 
stones  in  earth,  dropped  from  some  higher  sphere. 

119.  When  descends  on  the  Atlantic 

The  gigantic 
Storm-wind  of  the  Equinox, 
Landward  in  his  wrath  he  scourges 

The  toiling  surges 
Laden  with  sea-weeds  from  the  rocks.  — Longfellow. 

120.  What  has  the  gray-haired  prisoner  done? 

Has  murder  stained  his  hands  with  gore? 
Not  so,  his  crime  is  a  fouler  one: 

God  made  the  old  man  poor! 
For  this  he  shares  a  felon's  cell, 
The  fittest  earthly  type  of  hell: 
For  this,  the  boon  for  which  he  poured 
His  young  blood  on  the  invader's  sword, 
And  counted  life  the  fearful  cost, 
His  blood-gained  liberty  is  lost. 

121.  They  boast  they  come  but  to  improve  our  state,  enlarge  our 
thoughts,  and  free  us  from  the  yoke  of  error.  Yes,  they  will  give 
enlightened  freedom  to  our  minds,  who  are  themselves  the  slaves  of 
passion,  avarice,  and  pride, 

122.  Sweet  are  the  uses  of  adversity. 

Which  like  the  toad,  ugly  and  venonjous,  * 

Wears  yet  a  precious  jewel  in  his  head?  —  Shakspeare. 

123.  Flowers  are  stars,  wherein  wondrous  truths  are  made  manifest 

124.  The  twilight  hours  like  birds  flew  by, 

As  lightly  and  as  free; 
Ten  thousand   stars  were  in  the  sky, 

Ten  thousand  in  the  sea: 
For  every  wave  with  dimpled  cheek 

That  leaped  upon  the  air. 
Had  caught  a  star  in  its  embrace, 

And  held  it  trembling  there. 


184  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

125.  Humor  runs  through  his  speeches  like  violets  in  a  harvest-field, 
giving  sweet  odor  and  beauty  to  his  task  when  he  stoops  to  put  in 
the  sickle. 

126.  Ignorance  is  the  curse  of  God,  knowledge  the  wing  wherewith 
we  fly  to  heaven.  —  Shakspeare. 

127.  A  blind  man  is  a  poor  man,  and  blind  a  poor  man  is;  for  the 
former  seeth  no  man,  and  the  latter  no  man  sees. 

128.  Reflected  in  the  lake,  I  love 

To  see  the  stars  of  evening  glow, 
So  tranquil  in  the  heavens  above, 

So  restless  in  the  wave  below. 
Thus  heavenly  hope  is  all  serene, 

But  earthly  hope,  how  bright  soe'er, 
Still  fluctuates  o'er  this  changing  scene, 

As  false  and  fleeting  as  'tis  fair. — Heher, 

129.  Night  dropped  her  sable  curtain  down,  and  pinned  it  with  a 
star. 

130.  The  conscious  water  saw  its  Lord,  and  blushed. 

131.  The  aspen  heard  them,  and  she  trembled. 

132.  And  silence,  like  a  poultice,   comes 

To  heal  the  blows  of  sound.  —  Holmes. 

133.  Her  hair  drooped  down  her  pallid  cheeks, 

Like  sea-weed  on  a  clam. — Holmes. 

134.  We  [alumni]  leave,  like  those  volcanic  stones,  our  precious 

Alma  Mater, 
But  will  keep  dropping  in  again  to  see  the  dear  old  crater. 

Holmes. 

135.  Prologues  in  metre  are  to  other  pros 

As  worsted  stockings  are  to  Qng\nQ-h.0BQ. —r  Holmes. 

136.  To  thee  it  [death]   is  not 
So  much  even  as  the  lifting  of  a  latch ; 
Only  a  step  into  the  open  air 

Out  of  a  tent  already  luminous 

With  light  that  shines  through  its  transparent  walls. 

Longfellow. 

187.  The  burnished  dragon-fly  is  thine  attendant, 

And  tilts  against  the  field, 
And  down  the  listed  sunbeam  rides,  resplendent 
With  steel-blue  mail  and  shield. — Longfellow, 

188.  The  familiar  lines 

Are  footpaths  for  the  thoughts  of  Italy. 

Longfellow's  Ode  to  Dante, 


FIGURES  —  EXAMPLES.  185 

139.  And  under  low  brows,    black  with  night, 
Rayed  out  at  times  a  dangerous  light, 

The  sharp  heat-lightning  of  her  face.  —  Whittier. 

140.  It  is  nothing  like  the  grave  irony  of  Socrates,  which  was  the 
weapon  of  a  man  thoroughly  ^n  earnest, — the  boomerang  of  argu- 
ment, which  one  throws  in  the  opposite  direction  of  what  he  means 
to  hit,  and  which  seems  to  be  flying  away  from  the  adversary,  who 
will  presently  find  himself  knocked  down  by  it.  — Lowell, 

141.  And  the  cares  that  infest  the  day 

Shall  fold  their  tents  like  the  Arabs, 
And  as  silently  steal  away.  —  Longfellow. 

142.  He  is  a  close  observer,  continually  analyzing  his  own  nature 
and  that  of  others,  letting  fall  his  little  drops  of  acid  irony  on  all  who 
come  near  him,  to  make  them  show  what  they  are  made  of. — Lowell. 

143.  The  day  is  done;    and  slowly  from  the  scene 
The  stooping  sun  upgathers  his  spent  shafts, 

And  puts  them  back  into  his  golden  quiver.  —  Longfellow. 

144.  The  perpetual  silt  of  some  one  weakness,  the  eddies  of  a  sus- 
picious temper  depositing  their  one  impalpable  layer  after  another, 
may  build  up  a  shoal  on  which  an  heroic  life  and  otherwise  magnani- 
mous nature  may  bilge  and  go  to  pieces  — Lowell. 

145.  The  consecrated  chapel  on  the  crag, 

And  the  white  hamlet  gathered  round  its  base, 
Like  Mary  sitting  at  he;*  Saviour's  feet, 

And  looking  up  at  his  beloved  face !  —  Longfellow. 

146.  Shakspeare  did  not  mean  his  great  tragedies  for  scarecrows, 
as  if  the  nailing  of  one  hawk  to  the  barn-door  would  prevent  the  next 
coming  down  souse  into  the  hen-yard.  No,  it  is  not  the  poor  bleach- 
ing victim  hung  up  to  moult  its  draggled  feathers  in  the  rain  that  he 
wishes  to  show  us.  He  loves  the  hawk-nature  as  well  as  the  hen- 
nature  ;  and  if  he  is  unequalled  in  anything  it  is  in  that  sunny 
breadth  of  view,  that  impregnability  of  reason,  that  looks  down  upon 
all  ranks  and  conditions  of  men,  all  fortune  and  misfortune,  with  the 
equal  eye  of  the  pure  artist. — Lowell. 

147.  There  through  the  long,  bright  mornings  we  remained, 
Watching  the  noisy  ferry-boat  that  plied 

Like  a  slow  shuttle  through  the  sunny  warp 

Of  threaded  silver  from  a  thousand  brooks. 

That  took  new  beauty  as  it  wound  away.  —  Holland. 

148.  If,  as  poets  are  wont  to  whine,  the  outward  world  was  cold  to 
him  [Shakspeare],  its  biting  air  did  but  trace  itself  in  loveliest  froit- 


186  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

work  of  fancy  on  the  many  windows  of  that  self-centred  and  cheerful 
Boul.  —  Lowell. 

149.  As  from  a  deep,  dead  sea,  by  drastic  lift 
Of  pent  volcanic  fires,  the  dripping  form 
Of  a  new  island  swells  to  meet  the  air. 
And,  after  months  of  idle  basking,  feels 
The  prickly  feet  of  life  from  countless  germs 
Creeping  along  its  sides,  and  reaching  up 
In  fern  and  flower  to  the  life-giving  sun, 

So  from  my  grief  I  rose,  and  so  at  length 

I  felt  new  life  returning :    so  I  felt 

The  life  already  wakened  stretching  forth 

To  stronger  light  and  purer  atmosphere.  —  Holland. 

150.  When  once  the  shrinking,  dizzy  spell  was  gone, 
I  saw  below  me,  like  a  jewelled  cup, 

The  valley  hollowed  to  its  heaven-kissed  lip  — 
The  serrate  green  against  the  serrate  blue  — 
Brimming  with  beauty's  essence ;    palpitant 
With  a  divine  elixir  —  lucent  floods 
Poured  from  the  golden  chalice  of  the  sun, 
At  which  my  spirit  drank  with  conscious  growth, 
And  drank  again  with  still  expanding  scope 
Of  comprehension  and  of  faculty.  —  Hollaiid. 

151.  In  our  school-books  we  say, 

Of  those  that  held  their  heads  above  the  crowd, 
They  flourished  then  or  there :   but  life  in  him 
Could  scarce  be  said  to  flourish,   only  touch'd 
On  such  a  time  as  goes  before  the  leaf. 
When  all  the  wood  stands  in  a  mist  of  green, 
And  nothing  perfect.  —  Tennyson. 
152   We  are  puppets,  Man  in  his  pride,  and  Beauty  fair  in  her 

flower: 
Do  we  move  ourselves,  or  are  moved  by  an  unseen  hand,  at 

a  game 
That  pushes  us  off  from  the  board,  and  others  ever  succeed  ? 

Tenny*oiu 


■^^ 


CHAPTER  V. 

Special  Properties  of  Style. 

A  Comparison.  —  Rhetoric  has  sometimes  been  compared  to  archi- 
tecture. In  this  comparison,  words  are  the  materials  of  which  a 
structure  is  composed,  sentences  are  the  finished  walls,  and  figures 
the  ornaments.  Each  of  these  topics  has  now  been  made  the  sub- 
ject of  a  chapter,  under  the  several  heads  of  Diction,  Sentences, 
and  Figures. 

The  Comparison  Continued.  —  The  comparison  may  be  carried  one 
step  farther.  While  the  points  thus  far  named  belong  to  all  build- 
ings, buildings  themselves  are  classified  according  to  their  several 
styles  of  architecture,  and  according  to  the  uses  for  which  they  are 
intended.  One  is  massive  and  stern,  another  light  and  graceful; 
one  is  Grecian,  another  Gothic ;  one  is  a  temple  for  divine  worship, 
or  a  hall  for  legislation,  another  is  only  a  private  mansion.  Archi- 
tecture, in  other  words,  has  its  styles  suited  to  its  several  occasions, 
though  in  every  style  all  the  points  thus  far  noticed  are  necessary. 
Every  building,  that  has  a  claim  to  be  architectural  at  all,  necessa- 
rily supposes  materials,  walls,  and  means  of  ornament.  But  beyond 
this,  buildings  rapidly  diverge,  and  each  has  something  peculiar  to 
itself  which  others  have  not. 

How  Applied  to  Rhetoric,  —  So  it  is  in  Rhetoric.  Every  kind  of 
composition  requires  words,  sentences,  and  figures.  The  discussion 
of  these  involves  what  may  be  called  the  general  properties  of  style, 
that  is,  those  which  belong  to  every  species  of  composition.  But 
beyond  this,  works  have  special  peculiarities.  Some  works  are  sub- 
lime, some  are  beautiful,  some  witty,  some  humorous.  This  gives 
rise  to  what  may  be  called  the  special  properties  of  style. 

187 


188  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

The  Special  Properties  of  Style  form  the  next  topic  of 
discussion.  They  will  be  considered  under  the  following 
heads :  Sublimity,  Beauty,  Wit,  and  Humor. 

I.    SUBLIMITY. 

The  highest  commendation  that  can  be  given  to  any  piece 
of  composition,  is  to  say  that  it  is  sublime.  Sublimity, 
therefore,  is  a  quality  of  style  which  deserves  special  study. 
It  is  important  to  determine  with  some  particularity  both 
what  it  is,  and  how  it  is  to  be  attained. 

I.    WHAT    CONSTITUTES   SITBIilMITT. 

How  we  get  the  Idea.  —  The  easiest  way  of  getting  a  clear  idea  of 
Sublimity,  as  applied  to  what  is  written  or  spoken,  is  first  to  notice 
what  is  sublime  in  other  things.  The  feeling  of  Sublimity,  as  a 
mental  emotion,  is  perfectly  simple,  and,  like  all  simple  states  of  the 
mind,  incapable  of  definition.  All  we  know  of  the  matter,  on  the 
final  analysis,  is,  that  in  certain  situations  the  mind  experiences  a 
peculiar  elevation,  of  a  pleasurable  kind,  and  that  to  this  mental 
state  we  give  the  name  of  the  Sublime. 

Two  Senses  of  the  Word.  —  This  term,  the  Sublime,  or  Sublim- 
ity, is  applied  sometimes  to  the  objects  which  produce  the  feel- 
ing, sometimes  to  the  feeling  itself.  Thus  we  may  say,  *'  Niagara 
is  a  wonderful  instance  of  the  sublime,"  "Sublimity  is  the  chief 
characteristic  of  Niagara,"  or  we  may  say,  "I  have  an  overpower- 
ing sense  of  sublimity  (or,  of  the  sublime)  whenever  I  look  upon 
Niagara." 

How  Defined.  —  Although  the  sublime,  as  a  simple  mental  emotion, 
is  incapable  of  definition,  we  can  enumerate  the  several  qualities 
and  circumstances  which,  by  general  consent,  produce  the  feeling, 
and  can  thus  enable  each  one  to  judge  what  the  feeling  is,  by  an 
appeal  to  his  own  consciousness  in  view  of  such  qualities  or  circum- 
stances. 

1.  Vastness. — The  first  circumstance  that  may  be  named 
as  producing  a  feeling  of  the  sublime  is  vastness. 

Examples  of  Vastness. — We  have  examples  of  this  in  wide  ex- 
tended plains  to  which  the  eye  can  set  no  limit,  in  the  firmament  of 


SPECIAL    PROPERTIES — SUBLIMITY.      189 

heaven,  in  the  boundless  expanse  of  the  ocean.  Wherever  space  is 
eoncerned,  amplitude,  or  greatness  of  extent  in  one  dimension  or 
another,  is  necessary  to  grandeur.  Remove  all  bounds  from  any 
object,  and  you  at  once  render  it  sublime.  Hence,  infinite  space, 
endless  numbers,  and  eternal  duration  always  fill  the  mind  with 
ideas  of  sublimity. 

Direction  of  this  Extent.  —  It  is  noticeable,  however,  that  vast  ex- 
tent in  a  horizontal  direction  does  not  affect  the  mind  so  power- 
fully as  an  equal  extent  upwards  or  downwards.  A  spectator  may 
experience  a  feeling  of  grandeur  in  looking  over  a  plain,  stretching 
in  every  direction,  in  unbroken  lines,  twenty,  or  thirty,  or  forty 
miles.  But  his  feeling  would  be  intensified  a  thousand-fold  were  he 
to  look  up  at  a  mountain,  rising  boldly  to  an  equal  height  into  the 
skies,  or  down  over  a  sheer  precipice,  sinking  to  a  like  awful  depth 
below. 

The  Firmament.  —  In  the  case  of  the  firmament,  we  have  vastness 
of  extent  in  all  directions.  It  is  the  widest,  the  highest,  the  deepest 
object  in  all  nature.  Hence  its  universal  acceptance  as  a  most  im- 
pressive instance  of  sublimity. 

2.  Power. — The  second  circumstance  that  may  be  named 
as  producing  a  feeling  of  the  sublime  is  great  power. 

A  Locomotive.  —  A  man  standing  by  a  railroad  track,  out  in  the 
open  country,  where  the  trains  pass  at  full  speed,  and  seeing  a  mon- 
ster locomotive,  with  its  enormous  burden,  sweep  by  at  the  rate  of 
forty  or  fifty  miles  an  hour,  shaking  the  very  earth  as  it  passes,  gets 
an  impression  of  power  that  is  in  the  highest  degree  sublime. 

Steam-Hammers.  — A  like  impression  is  produced  on  contemplating 
the  gigantic  machines  now  used  in  engineering  operations,  —  pon- 
derous hammers,  weighing  in  some  instances  many  tons,  swayed  up 
and  down,  with  all  their  resistless  mass,  with  perfect  ease  and  dex- 
terity, as  if  mere  playthings  in  the  hands  of  a  child.  Indeed,  the 
actual  processes  of  modern  mechanism,  as  seen  in  our  foundries  and 
mines,  far  surpass  in  grandeur  whatever  was  fabled  by  the  ancients 
in  their  wildest  imaginings  of  the  labors  of  Vulcan  and  the  Cyclops. 

Natural  Objects.  —  Many  objects  in  nature  give  an  impression  of 

power  that  awakens  a  feeling  of  the  sublime.     Among  these  may  be 

mentioned  earthquakes,  thunder  and  lightning,  volcanoes,  cataracts, 

storms  at  sea,  and  nearly  all  unusual  and  violent  commotions  of  the 

17  13 


190  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETOEIC. 

elements.  Some  of  the  larger  animals,  such  as  the  lion,  display  a 
certain  power  and  majesty  that  raise  an  emotion  of  sublimity  in  the 
beholder. 

IVar-horse.  —  The  war-horse,  as  described  in  the  book  of  Job,  is  a  familiar 
instance. 

"Hast  thou  given  the  horse  strength?  hast  thou  clothed  his  neck  with  thunder? 
Canst  thou  make  him  afraid  as  a  grasshopper?  The  glory  of  his  nostrils  is  terrible. 
He  paweth  in  the  valley,  and  rejoiceth  in  his  strength ;  he  goeth  on  to  meet  the 
armed  men.  He  mocketh  at  fear,  and  is  not  aflfrighted ;  neither  turneth  he  back 
from  the  sword.  The  quiver  rattleth  against  him,  the  glittering  spear  and  the  shield. 
He  swalloweth  the  ground  with  fierceness  and  rage;  neither  believeth  he  that  it  is' 
the  sound  of  the  trumpet.  He  saith  among  the  trumpets,  Ha !  ha !  and  he  smelleth 
the  battle  afar  off,  the  thunder  of  the  captains  and  the  shouting."     (Job  39 :  19  -25.) 

3.  Awfulness.  —  The  third  circumstance  that  may  be 
named  as  producing  a  feeling  of  the  sublime  is  a  certain 
degree  of  awfulness  and  solemnity. 

Objects  which  Inspire  Awe.  —  Darkness,  solitude,  and  silence,  espe- 
cially when  connected  with  some  indefinable  apprehension  of  danger, 
all  tend  to  produce  a  feeling  of  sublimity.  The  scenes  of  external 
nature  which  awaken  this  feeling  are  not  the  gay  landscape,  the 
flowery  meadow,  or  the  busy  and  flourishing  city ;  but  the  hoary 
mountain,  the  solitary  lake,  the  aged  forest,  or  the  deserted  ruin. 

Wight.  —  For  the  same  reason,  anything  which  has  in  itself  ele- 
ments of  grandeur  becomes  still  more  impressive  when  observed  at 
night.  The  firmament,  amid  the  silence  and  stillness  of  that  season, 
strikes  the  imagination  with  a  more  awful  grandeur  than  when  seen 
amid  the  splendors  of  the  noonday  sun.  The  deep  tones  of  a  great 
bell  are  at  any  time  grand;  but  they  are  doubly  so  when  heard  at 
the  still  and  solemn  hour  of  midnight.  In  the  sublime  description 
which  the  Scriptures  give  of  the  presence  of  Jehovah,  he  is  repre- 
sented as  surrounding  himself  with  a  mysterious  darkness. 

"  He  bowed  the  heavens  also,  and  came  down ;  and  darkness  was  imder  his  feet. 
He  made  darkness  his  secret  place ;  his  pavilion  round  about  him  were  dark  waters, 
and  thick  clouds  of  the  skies."    (Psalms  18 :  9  -11.) 

4.  Obscurity.  —  Another  circumstance  that  helps  to 
awaken  a  feeling  of  the  sublime  is  obscurity. 

How  Obscurity  Operates.  —  Obscurity  alone  does  not  produce  sub- 
limity, but  it  co-operates  powerfully  with  other  circumstances  in 
producing  this  feeling.     This  is  one  reason  why  objects  otherwis* 


SPECIAL    PROPERTIES — SUBLIMITY.      191 

impressive,  become  more  so  in  the  obscurity  of  the  night  season. 
Things  seen  only  in  dim,  uncertain  outline  become  magnified  and 
exaggerated  under  the  influence  of  an  excited  imagination. 

Ghosts.  —  Hence  the  awe  inspired  by  the  supposed  appearance  of 
ghosts.  The  mysterious  power  attributed  to  such  beings,  joined  to 
the  awful  obscurity  attending  their  appearance,  has  always  given 
them  a  strong  hold  upon  the  imagination. 

Example.  —  A  good  illustration  of  this  is  found  in  the  book  of  Job, 
(4 ;  13-17,)  when  Eliphaz  describes  a  spirit  as  appearing  to  him  in 
the  silence  and  obscurity  of  the  night ; 

"  In  thoughts  from  the  visions  of  the  night,  when  deep  sleep  falleth  on  men,  fear  came 
upon  me,  and  trembling,  which  made  all  my  bones  to  shake.  Then  a  spirit  passed 
before  my  face;  the  hair  of  my  flesh  stood  up:  it  stood  still,  but  I  could  not  discern 
the  form  thereof:  an  image  was  before  mine  eyes,  there  was  silence,  and  I  heard  a  voice. 
Baying,  Shall  mortal  man  be  more  just  than  God  ?  " 

5.  Loudness  of  Sound.  —  Another  circumstance  which 
often  produces  the  feeling  of  the  sublime  is  great  loudness 
of  sound. 

What  Kind  of  Loudness  Sublime.  —  It  is  not,  however,  every  kind 
of  loud  sound  that  produces  this  effect.  Sounds  that  are  shrill  or 
piercing,  may  terrify  or  distress,  but  they  do  not  fill  the  mind  with 
ideas  of  grandeur.  It  is  the  deep  bass  of  the  ocean,  the  roar  of  the 
cataract  and  of  the  storm,  of  thunder  and  earthquake,  the  shouting 
of  a  multitude,  or  the  bursting  of  cannon,  not  the  shriek  of  the  loco- 
motive, that  awakens  a  feeling  of  sublimity. 

Example  from  Revelation.  —  How  many  of  these  ideas  are  brought 
together  in  that  sublime  scene  described  in  the  Revelation,  (19  :  6.) 

"  And  I  heard  as  it  were  the  voice  of  a  great  multitude,  and  as  the  voice  of  many 
waters,  and  as  the  voice  of  mighty  thunderings,  saying,  Alleluia:  for  the  Lord  God 
Omnipotent  reigueth." 

6.  Moral  Greatness. — A  feeling  ofthe  sublime  is  awakened 
when  we  contemplate  anything  strikingly  great  or  noble  in 
human  actions.  This  is  sometimes  called  the  Moral  Sub- 
lime. 

Explanation.  —  Whenever,  in  some  critical  and  high  situation,  we 
behold  a  man  uncommonly  intrepid,  and  resting  upon  himself; 
superior  to  passion  and  to  fear  ;  elevated  by  some  great  principle  to 


192  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORIC. 

the  contempt  of  popular  opinion,  of  selfish  interest,  of  dangers,  or  of 
death,  then  we  are  struck  with  a  sense  of  the  sublime.  Actions  of 
this  kind  are  called  heroic,  and  they  produce  an  effect  similar  to  that 
produced  by  the  contemplation  of  the  grand  objects  in  nature,  filling 
the  mind  with  admiration,  and  even  with  awe. 

When  king  Porua,  after  a  gallant  defence,  was  taken  prisoner,  and  was  asked  how 
he  wished  to  be  treated,  he  replied,  "  Like  a  king:' 

When  the  pilot  was  afraid  to  put  out  to  sea  with  Caesar  in  an  open  boat  in  time  of 
storm,  Cfcsar  said,  "  Why  do  you  fear?     You  carry  Csesar:' 

When  Gideon  condemned  the  captive  princes  Zeba  and  Zalmunna  to  be  put  to 
death,  and  commanded  his  son,  who  was  standing  by,  to  slay  them,  they  replied  to 
Gideon,  "  Rise  thou  and  fall  upon  us,"  thinking  it  more  honorable  to  fall  by  the  hand 
of  a  great  warrior  than  by  the  hand  of  a  mere  youth. 

An  English  transport,  carrying  passengers  and  troops,  sprang  a  leak  upon  the 
Indian  Ocean.  Held  to  their  duty  by  a  young  Ensign,  the  four  hundred  troops  gara 
up  the  life-boats  to  the  passengers ;  and  forming  in  i-ank  and  file  on  the  deck,  as  tho 
loaded  boats  sailed  oflf  to  a  safe  distance,  the  passengers  caught  the  sound  ©f  the  young 
Ensign's  voice,  as  he  shouted,  standing  face  to  face  with  death,  "  Fire,  my  boys,  a 
parting  salute  to  Old  England ! "  There  came  a  volley  of  musketry,  and  when  the 
smoke  cleared  away,  not  even  a  floating  spar  told  where  the  vessel  and  her  gallant 
freight  had  gone  down  beneath  the  waters. 

Actions  such  as  these  fill  the  mind  with  a  feeling  of  the  sublime.  History  is  full  of 
examples. 

II.  THE   SUBLIME  IN   WRITING. 

Having  thus,  in  regard  to  actions  and  to  natural  objects,  formed 
some  definite  idea  of  what  those  qualities  are  which  raise  in  us  the 
feeling  of  the  sublime,  we  are  the  better  able  to  explain  what  it  is 
that  constitutes  the  sublime  in  writing  or  discourse.  This,  then, 
will  be  our  next  inquiry. 

1.  Sublimity  of  Subject.  —  The  first  requisite,  in  order 
that  a  piece  of  composition  shall  be  sublime,  is  that  the 
subject  of  discourse  shall  itself  be  sublime. 

Explanation.  —  Unless  the  action,  or  the  natural  object  or  occur- 
rence, or  whatever  it  is  that  we  discourse  about,  is  itself  such  that 
if  actually  witnessed  by  us  it  would  awaken  a  feeling  of  sublimity, 
no  mere  words  can  make  it  so.  High  -  sounding  words  clothing  a 
mean  subject  are  only  the  lion's  skin  covering  an  ass.  They  give  ua 
a  bray,  not  the  genuine  roar  which  sends  terror  to  the  heart. 

2.  A  Vivid  Conception  of  the  Strong  Points. — The  second 
requisite,  in  order  that  a  piece  of  composition  shall  be  sub- 
lime, is  that  the  writer  or  speaker  form  a  vivid  conception 
of  the  strong  points  of  the  subject  of  discourse. 


SPECIAL    PKOPERTIES — SUBLIMITY.      193 

Explanation.  —  A  man  of  feeble  abilities,  though  describing  the 
most  awful  or  the  most  stupendous  object  in  nature,  may  yet  not 
have  the  natural  elevation  of  soul  which  will  lead  him  to  notice  what 
is  really  grand  in  the  object.  He  must  have  something  grand  in 
himself  in  order  to  conceive  rightly  of  what  is  grand  in  other  things. 
It  is  not  in  rules  to  give  this  ability.  It  is  the  gift  of  God.  No  one 
can  write  sublimely,  even  on  a  sublime  subject,  unless  he  has  by 
nature  a  certain  greatness  of  soul. 

Napoleon  in  Egypt,  wishing  to  inspire  his  army  with  enthusiasm 
for  the  battle,  pointed  to  the  Pyramids,  and  said :  "  Thirty  centuries 
are  looking  down  upon  you !  "  No  one  who  was  not  himself  of  heroic 
mould  would  have  thus  conceived  or  spoken  of  those  hoary  monu- 
ments of  antiquity. 

A  thunder-storm  at  night  among  the  mountains  is  a  spectacle  of 
terrible  sublimity.  But  a  description  of  it,  even  if  accurate  in  all 
its  particulars,  would  not  necessarily  be  sublime.  The  writer  must 
know  how  to  seize  strongly  upon  those  few  grand  features  which 
constitute  its  sublimity.  None  but  a  poet  of  high  genius  could  have 
conceived  of  it  as  Byron  has  done: 

Far  along 
From  peak  to  peak  the  rattling  crags  among, 

Leaps  the  live  thunder!  not  from  one  lone  cloud, 
But  every  mountain  now  hath  found  a  tongue, 

And  Jura  answers  through  her  misty  shroud, 
Back  to  the  joyous  Alps,  who  call  to  her  aloud ! 


How  the  lit  lake  shines,  a  phosphoric  sea, 

And  the  big  rain  comes  dancing  to  the  earth! 

And  now  again  'tis  black  —  and  now  the  glee 
Of  the  loud  hill  shakes  with  its  mountain  mirth, 

As  if  they  did  rejoice  o'er  a  young  earthquake's  birth. 

3.  Suppression  of  Belittling  Details.  —  A  tbird  condition 
to  sublimity  in  discourse  is  that  the  author  knows  what  par- 
ticulars to  omit,  as  well  as  what  to  insert. 

Example  from  Jfilton. — There  are,  even  about  the  grandest  ob- 
jects, many  details  which  are  belittling.  Milton,  in  his  battle  of  the 
angels,  describes  them  as  tearing  up  the  mountains  and  throwing 
them  at  one  another  : 

From  their  foundations  loos'ning  to  and  fro, 
They  plucked  the  seated  hills,  with  all  their  load. 
Rocks,  waters,  woods ;  and  by  the  shaggy  tops 
Uplifting,  bore  them  in  their  hands. 

Here  no  circumstance  is  mentioned  which  is  not  sublime. 
17* 


194  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORIC. 

Claudian.  —  One  of  the  ancient  poets,  Claudian,  in  describing  a  sim- 
ilar scene  in  the  wars  of  the  giants,  adds  a  circumstance  which 
makes  the  whole  thing  ridiculous.  He  represents  one  of  the  giants 
with  Mount  Ida  upon  his  shoulders,  and  a  river,  which  flowed  from 
the  mountain,  running  down  along  the  giant's  back. 

Virgil. So  great  a  poet  as  Virgil  has  made  a  like  mistake  in  de- 
scribing an  eruption  of  Mount  JEtna.  Personifying  the  mountain, 
he  describes  it  under  the  degrading  image  of  a  drunken  man  "belch- 
ing up  its  bowels  with  a  groan,"  (eructans  viscera  cum  gemitu). 

Blackmore.  —  Sir  Richard  Blackmore,  by  a  singular  perversity  of 
taste,  seized  upon  this  idea  as  the  capital  circumstance  in  his  de- 
scription, and,  as  one  of  his  critics  observes,  represents  the  mountain 
as  in  a  fit  of  the  cholic. 

^tna,  and  all  the  burning  mountains,  fired 
Their  kindled  stores  with  inbred  storms  of  wind 
Blown  up  to  rage,  and  roaring  out  complain, 
As  torn  with  inward  gripes,  and  torturing  pain; 
Laboring,  they  cast  their  dreadful  vomit  round, 
And  with  their  melted  bowels  spread  the  ground. 

4.  Simplicity  and  Conciseness  of  Expression.  —  A  fourth 
condition  of  sublimity  in  writing  is  that  the  expression  be 
simple  and  concise. 

Explanation.  —  Simplicity  is  here  used  in  opposition  to  profuse 
and  studied  ornament,  and  conciseness  to  superfluous  expression. 
In  all  the  celebrated  examples  of  the  sublime  which  literature 
aflfords,  the  words  used  are  comparatively  plain  and  few.  The  sub- 
limity is  in  the  thought,  and  that  is  all  the  more  impressive  for  stand- 
ing, like  the  Pyramids,  in  simple  and  unadorned  grandeur. 

Longinus,  a  learned  Greek  of  the  third  century,  quotes,  as  an  in- 
stance of  the  sublime,  the  manner  in  which  Moses,  in  the  first 
chapter  of  Genesis,  describes  the  creation  of  light:  "God  said,  Let 
there  be  light,  and  there  was  light;  "  yet  the  expression  is  perfectly 
plain  and  simple,  without  ornament,  and  without  a  superfluous  word. 
The  grandeur  of  the  passage  consists  in  the  strong  impression  it 
gives  us  of  the  greatness  of  the  divine  power,  which  produces  such 
wonderful  off'ects  by  merely  speaking  a  word. 

The  Sublimity  of  the  Gospels. — Many  of  the  sayings  and  most  of 
the  miracles  of  our  Lord,  as  recorded  in  the  Gospels,  have  the  same 
characteristic.     They  are  expressed  with  the  utmost  simplicity  and 


SPECIAL    PROPERTIES  —  SUBLIMITY.       195 

plainness,  and  yet  they  are  in  the  highest  degree  sublime.  The 
most  stupendous  miracles  are  described  with  a  simple  majesty  fully 
equal  to  that  in  Genesis  which  extorted  such  admiration  from  Lon- 
ginus. 

Examples.  —  In  describing  the  greatest  of  all  his  miracles,  that  of  raising  from 
the  dead,  the  record  is  simply,  "Jesus  said,  Lazarus,  come  forth:  and  he  that  was 
dead  came  forth."  In  healing  the  worst  form  of  disease  then  known,  he  merely  said 
to  the  leprous  man,  "  Be  thou  clean :  and  immediately  his  leprosy  was  cleansed." 
When  the  disciples  were  in  peril  at  sea,  more  terrifying  than  that  which  daunted 
Csesar's  pilot,  Jesus  with  calm  serenity  said,  "It  is  /,  be  not  afraid."  His  claims  to 
authority,  as  a  teacher  come  from  God,  are  put  forth  in  few  and  simple  words,  but  at 
the  same  time  with  a  majesty  of  expression  that  forced  even  his  enemies  to  say, 
"  never  man  spake  like  this  man." 

Character  of  these  Utterances. —  These  utterances  are  either  simply 
blasphemous  in  their  arrogance,  or  they  are  in  the  high6st  degree 
sublime.  Imagine  any  other  man  that  ever  lived,  saying  to  the 
countless  tribes  of  affliction,  in  all  the  ends  of  the  earth,  "Come 
unto  me,  all  ye  that  labor  and  are  heavy-laden,  and  /  will  give  you 
rest."  "  Let  not. your  hearts  be  troubled:  ye  believe  in  God,  believe 
also  in  ot<!."  ♦*  Before  Abraham  was,  I  am.''  "In  this  place  is  one 
greater  than  the  temple,"  "The  son  of  man  is  Lord  even  of  the 
Sabbath  day,"  "I  am  the  resurrection  and  the  life;  he  that  believ- 
eth  in  me,  though  he  were  dead,  yet  shall  he  live." 

Improving  upon  the  Sublime.  —  If  we  take  any  of  the  examples 
which  have  been  given,  and  endeavor  to  improve  upon  them,  by 
piling  up  big  words  and  sounding  epithets,  and  by  going  into  vari- 
ous small  details,  we  soon  find  that  the  sublimity  has  all  disappeared. 
The  transaction  or  the  thought  may  still  be  grand  ;  but  our  expres- 
sion of  it  is  poor  and  commonplace.  A  second-rate  poet  has  thus 
dilated  upon  Caesar's  celebrated  phrase.  Quid  times?  Csesarem  vehit. 
("What  do  you  fear?     You  carry  Caesar.") 

"But  Caesar,  still  superior  to  distress, 
Fearless,  and  confident  of  sure  success. 
Thus  to  the  pilot  loud:  The  seas  despise, 
And  the  vain  threat'ning  of  the  noisy  skies ; 
Though  gods  deny  thee  yon  Ausonian  strand, 
Yet  go,  I  charge  you,  go,  at  my  command. 
Thy  ignorance  alone  can  cause  thy  fears, 
Thou  know'st  not  what  a  freight  thy  vessel  bears; 
Thou  know'st  not  I  am  he  to  whom  'tis  given, 
Never  to  want  the  care  of  watchful  heaven.  '' 

Obedient  fortune  waits  my  humble  thrall, 
And  always  ready,  comes  before  I  call. 
Let  winds  and  seas,  loud  wars  at  freedom  wage, 
Aud  waste  upon  themselves  their  empty  rage; 


196  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC, 

A  stronger,  mightier  daimon  is  thy  friend, 
Thou  and  thy  bark  on  Ctesar's  fate  depend. 
Thou  stand'st  amazed  to  view  this  dreadful  scene, 
And  wonder'st  what  the  gods  and  fortune  mean; 
But  artfully  their  bounties  thus  they  raise, 
And  from  iny  danger  arrogate  new  praise; 
Amid  the  foars  of  death  they  bid  me  live, 
And  still  enhance  what  they  are  sure  to  give." 


II.     BEAUTY. 

Mode  of  Treatment.  —  The  treatment  of  Beauty  as  a  quality  of 
style  must  be,  in  some  respects,  similar  to  our  treatment  of  Sub- 
limity. We  will  speak  first  of  Beauty  in  general,  and  then  of  Rhe- 
torical beauty,  or  beauty  in  Composition. 

I.    BEAUTY  IN  QENEKAIi. 

Eelation  of  Beauty  to  Sublimity.  —  Beauty,  next  to  Sublimity, 
afiFords  the  highest  pleasure  to  the  taste.  The  emotion  which  it 
raises,  however,  is  very  distinguishable  from  that  of  sublimity.  It 
is  of  a  calmer  kind ;  more  gentle  and  soothing ;  does  not  elevate 
the  mind  so  much,  but,  on  the  contrary,  produces  an  agreeable 
serenity.  Sublimity  raises  a  feeling  too  violent  to  be  lasting ;  the 
pleasure  arising  from  beauty  admits  of  longer  continuance.  It 
extends  also  to  a  much  greater  variety  of  objects.  It  is  applied 
indeed  to  almost  every  external  object  that  pleases  either  the  eye, 
or  the  ear;  to  many  dispositions  of  the  mind;  to  numerous  objects 
of  mere  abstract  science  ;  and  to  nearly  all  the  graces  of  writing. 
We  talk  currently  of  a  beautiful  tree  or  flower ;  a  beautiful  charac- 
ter ;  a  beautiful  theorem  in  mathematics  ;  a  beautiful  poem  or  essay. 

The  qualities  which  produce  in  us  the  emotion  of  beauty  may 
mostly  be  reduced  under  the  following  heads : 

1.  Color. — Color  affords  the  simplest  instance  of  beauty. 
The  eye  is  so  formed  that  certain  colors  give  us  pleasure, 
and  these  colors  we  call  beautiful. 

How  far  Influenced  by  Association.  —  In  some  cases,  probably,  the 
pleasure  derived  from  color  is  influenced  by  the  association  of  ideas. 
Green,  for  instance,  is  more  pleasing,  because  associated  with  rural 
scenes;  blue,  with  the  serenity  of  the  sky;  white,  with  innocence. 
Persona  diff'er  too  in  their  choice  of  colors,  and  in  the  extent  to 
^bich  color  itself  gives  theqij  pleasure.     But,  notwithstanding  this, 


SPECIAL.    PEOPERTIES  —  BEAUTY.  197 

the  fact  still  remains  that  color  alone,  apart  from  all  associations,  is 
a  source  of  beauty. 

Evidence  of  God's  Goodness.  — It  is  a  striking  evidence  of  the  good- 
ness of  the  Creator,  that  a  source  of  pleasure  so  pure  and  elevating 
is  at  the  same  time  so  abundant.  The  whole  visible  creation,  ani- 
mate and  inanimate,  is  a  picture  gallery,  replete  with  specimens  of 
coloring  such  as  no  art  of  man  can  equal,  either  for  richness  or  for 
delicacy.  There  is  no  shade  or  tint  in  which  the  eye  of  man  takes 
delight,  that  may  not  be  found  in  its  perfection  in  the  plumage  of 
the  birds,  the  leaves  of  plants  and  flowers,  the  varied  hues  of  the 
morning  and  evening  sky,  the  wondrous  shells  of  the  ocean,  the  still 
more  wondrous  gems  from  the  mine. 

2.  Figure.  —  Figure,  as  a  source  of  beauty,  is  more  com- 
plex and  diversified  than  color.  The  beauty  which  can  be 
traced  to  figure,  is  made  up  of  several  elements,  which  may- 
be separated  in  idea. 

Regularity.  —  The  first  of  these  elements  is  regularity.  By  a 
regular  figure  is  meant  one  which  we  perceive  to  be  formed  accord- 
ing to  some  rule,  and  not  left  arbitrary  and  loose  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  its  parts.  Thus  a  square,  a  triangle,  a  circle,  an  ellipse  are 
regular  fi*gures,  and  on  the  proper  occasions  please  the  eye  by  this 
regularity,  and  are,  for  that  reason,  accounted  beautiful. 

Variety.  —  Another  element,  in  the  beauty  which  is  dependent 
upon  figure,  is  exactly  the  opposite  to  that  just  named.  I  mean 
variety.  This  latter  is  indeed  a  much  more  prolific  source  of  beauty 
than  the  former.  Both  in  the  works  of  nature,  and  in  those  works 
of  art  which  are  intended  to  please,  while  regularity  of  figure  is 
sufficiently  observed  to  prevent  confusion,  and  to  show  design,  yet 
a  certain  graceful  variety  is  the  prevailing  characteristic. 

Each  when  Pleasing.  —  Exact  mathematical  figures,  indeed,  are 
seldom,  perhaps  never,  pleasing,  except  when  associated  with  the 
idea  of  fitness  for  some  particular  use.  The  doors  and  windows  of 
a  house  are  made  after  a  regular  form,  with  exact  proportion  of 
parts  ;  and  being  so  formed,  they  please  the  eye,  beoause  by  this 
very  regularity  of  figure  they  better  subserve  the  use  for  which  they 
were  designed.  But  the  plants  and  flowers  which  surround  the 
house  have  an  almost  infinite  diversity  and  variety  of  figure,  and 
please  us  all  the  more  for  being  so  formed,  instead  of  growing  in 
Bquares,  circles,  and  polygons. 


19^8  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Curves.  —  Figures  bounded  by  curved  lines  are  in  general  more 
beautiful  than  those  bounded  by  straight  lines  and  angles.  To  say 
that  a  thing  is  angular,  is  only  another  way  of  saying  that  it  lacks 
beauty.  Of  curved  lines,  those  which  are  elliptical  are  usually  more 
pleasing  than  those  which  are  circular.  The  reason  seems  to  be 
that  in  the  ellipse,  there  is  a  constant  deviation  from  the  line  of  curv- 
ature, giving  at  the  same  time  continual  uniformity  and  continual 
change.  For  the  same  reason,  wave  lines  and  spiral  lines  are 
accounted  beautiful,  and  they  are  found  of  frequent  recurrence  in 
shells,  flowers,  and  other  works  of  nature,  and  in  the  works  of  art 
that  are  designed  for  ornament  and  decoration. 

3.  Motion.  —  Motion  is  a  source  of  beauty.  By  this  is 
meant  that  bodies  in  motion  are  for  that  reason  more  agree- 
able than  bodies  at  rest.  But  not  every  kind  of  motion  is 
agreeable,  and  of  those  which  are  agreeable  some  are  more 
so  than  others. 

Gentle.  —  The  first  requisite  to  the  agreeableness  of  any  motion  is 
that  it  should  be  gentle.  A  bird  gliding  through  the  air  is  beauti- 
ful ;  the  lightning,  on  the  contrary,  darting  from  side  to  side  of  the 
heavens,  is  sublime.  We  feel  the  same  difference  in  contemplating 
a  stream  moving  gently  along  its  course,  and  a  torrent  dashing 
tumultuously  over  a  precipice. 

Curvilinear.  —  Another  requisite  to  the  agreeableness  of  motion  is 
that  it  should  be  in  curved  rather  than  in  straight  lines.  Hence  the 
pleasing  effect  of  curling  smoke  or  flame.  Here  it  is  to  be  noticed 
that  most  of  the  motions  used  by  men  in  transacting  the  necessary 
business  of  life  are  in  straight  lines,  while  those  connected  mainly 
with  pleasure  and  ornament  are  made  in  curving  lines. 

4.  Complex  Beauty.  —  Though  color,  figure,  and  motion 
are  separate  principles  of  beauty,  yet  in  many  beautiful 
objects  they  all  meet,  and  thereby  render  the  beauty  both 
greater  and  more  complex. 

Examples.  —  Thus,  in  flowers,  trees,  and  animals,  we  are  enter- 
tained at  once  with  the  delicacy  of  the  color,  with  the  gracefulness 
of  the  figure,  and  sometimes  also  with  the  motion  of  the  object. 
Although  each  of  these  produces  separately  an  agreeable  sensation, 
yet  these  seusationg  are  of  such  a  similar  nature  as  readily  to  mix 


SPECIAL.    PROPERTIES  —  BEAUTY.  199 

and  blend  in  one  general  perception  of  beauty,  Tvhich  we  ascribe  to 
the  whole  object  as  its  cause :  for  beauty  is  always  conceived  by  us 
as  something  residing  in  the  object  which  raises  the  pleasant  sensa- 
tion ;  a  sort  of  glory  which  dwells  upon  and  invests  it. 

The  most  Complete  Example.  —  Perhaps  the  most  complete  assem- 
blage of  beautiful  objects  that  can  anywhere  be  found,  is  presented 
by  a  rich  natural  landscape,  where  there  is  a  sufficient  variety  of 
objects;  fields  in  verdure,  scattered  trees  and  flowers,  running  water, 
and  animals  grazing.  If  to  these  be  joined  some  of  the  productions 
of  art,  which  suit  such  a  scene,  — as  a  bridge  with  arches  over  a  river, 
smoke  rising  from  cottages  in  the  midst  of  trees,  and  the  distant 
view  of  a  fine  building  seen  by  the  rising  sun, —  we  then  enjoy,  in  the 
highest  perfection,  that  gay,  cheerful,  and  placid  sensation  which 
characterizes  beauty.  To  have  an  eye  and  a  taste  formed  for  catch- 
ing the  peculiar  beauties  of  such  scenes  as  these  is  a  necessary 
requisite  for  all  who  attempt  poetical  description. 

5.  Beauty  of  Countenance. — The  beauty  of  the  human 
countenance  is  more  complex  than  any  that  we  have  yet 
considered. 

What  it  Includes.  —  It  includes  the  beauty  of  color,  arising  from 
the  delicate  shades  of  the  complexion ;  and  the  beauty  of  figure, 
arising  from  the  lines  which  form  the  different  features  of  the  face. 
But  the  chief  beauty  of  the  countenance  depends  upon  a  mysterious 
expression  which  it  conveys  of  the  qualities  of  the  mind ;  of  good 
sense  or  good  humor;  of  sprightliness,  candor,  benevolence,  sensi- 
bility, or  other  amiable  dispositions.  How  it  comes  to  pass  that  a 
certain  conformation  of  features  is  connected  in  our  idea  with  cer- 
tain moral  qualities ;  whether  we  are  taught  by  instinct  or  by  expe- 
rience to  form  this  connection,  and  to  read  the  mind  in  the  counte- 
nance, belongs  not  to  us  now  to  inquire,  nor  is  indeed  easy  to  resolve. 
The  fact  is  certain  and  acknowledged,  that  what  gives  the  human 
countenance  its  most  distinguishing  beauty  is  what  is  called  its 
expression ;  or  an  image,  which  it  is  conceived  to  show,  of  internal 
moral  dispositions. 

6.  Moral  Beauty.  —  There  are  certain  qualities  of  the 
mind  which,  whether  expressed  in  the  countenance,  or  by 
words,  or  by  actions,  always  raise  in  us  a  feeling  similar  to 
that  of  beauty. 


200  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC.     . 

Two  Kinds  of  Moral  Qualities.  —  There  are  two  great  classes  of 
moral  qualities.  One  class  is  of  the  high  and  great  virtues,  which 
require  extraordinary  eflForts,  and  turn  upon  dangers  and  suflFerings. 
Among  these  virtues  are  heroism,  magnanimity,  contempt  of  plea- 
Burefl,  and  contempt  of  death.  These  excite  in  the  spectator  an 
emotion  of  sublimity  and  grandeur.  The  other  class  is  generally  of 
the  social  virtues,  and  such  as  are  of  a  softer  and  gentler  kind. 
Among  these  are  compassion,  mildness,  friendship,  and  generosity. 
These  raise  in  the  beholder  a  sensation  of  pleasure,  so  much  akin  to 
that  produced  by  beautiful  external  objects,  that,  though  of  a  more 
dignified  nature,  it  may,  without  impropriety,  be  classed  under  the 
same  head. 

II.    THE  BEAUTIFUL  IN  WRITING. 

Having  obtained  some  definite  notion  of  what  Beauty  is,  as  applied 
to  objects  in  general,  we  can  more  readily  understand  what  is  meant 
by  the  Beautiful  in  composition,  and  how  it  is  to  be  sought. 

1.  Beauty  of  Subject.  —  The  first  requisite  to  beauty  in 
composition  is  that  the  subject  of  discourse  be  of  an  agree- 
able character. 

Explanation.  —  If  that  of  which  we  write  or  speak  is  of  such  a 
character  that  it  would,  if  actually  present,  excite  contempt,  disgust, 
or  terror,  no  grace  of  rhetoric  will  make  it  agreeable.  Discourse, 
to  be  beautiful,  must  present  to  the  mind  beautiful  subjects  for 
thought. 

The  Beautiful  and  the  Scientific. — There  is  a  great  difference  in 
this  respect  between  what  is  meant  to  please  merely,  and  what  is 
meant  to  instruct;  between  the  beautiful  and  the  scientific.  In  a 
scientific  inquiry,  our  object  is  to  obtain  the  exact  facts,  whether 
agreeable  or  disagreeable.  But  in  attempting  to  write  what  is  beau- 
tiful, our  object  is  to  please.  We  select,  therefore,  topics  whioh  are 
pleasing,  and  omit  those  which  are  displeasing. 

2.  Beauty  of  Expression.— The  second  requisite  to  beauty 
in  composition  is  that  the  subject  be  handled  in  an  agree- 
able manner. 

Vagueness  of  the  Eule.  — It  may  be  objected  to  this  rule  that  it  is 
too  vague  in  its  character  to  be  of  any  practical  use.  But  it  may 
serve  to  exclude  many  things  which  are  objectionable,  and  also  to 


SPECIAL    PROPEETIES  —  WIT.  201 

point  in  a  general  way  to  the  kind  of  excellence  at  which  a  writer 
should  aim,  who  desires  to  be  considered  beautiful. 

Uses  of  the  Kule.  —  It  excludes  low  and  vulgar  expressions,  slang 
phrases,  and  words  which  are  harsh-sounding  or  difficult  of  utter- 
ance, when  there  are  others  more  euphonious  and  equally  expres- 
sive. It  leads  one  to  seek  such  words  and  phrases  as  are  easy  of 
utterance,  such  as  please  the  ear,  and  such  as  for  any  cause  awaken 
in  the  mind  agreeable  ideas.  It  makes  much  use  of  simile,  meta- 
phor, and  other  rhetorical  figures,  and  it  pays  great  attention  to  the 
structure  of  sentences,  so  as  to  make  them  flowing  and  harmonious. 

3.  Conciseness  not  Necessary. — Beauty  as  an  attribute  of 
style,  does  not  require  the  same  degree  of  conciseness  that 
sublimity  does. 

Why  the  Difference.  —  A  certain  degree  of  diffuseness  is  entirely 
compatible  with  that  ease  and  grace  of  expression  which  is  charac- 
teristic of  beauty.  The  emotion  known  as  the  beautiful,  being  of  a 
gentle  nature,  is  capable  of  longer  continuance  than  the  sublime/-  It 
may  pervade,  indeed,  a  whole  work,  while  sublimity  is  more  confined 
to  single  passages  and  expressions. 


Wit  and  Humor.  —  Sublimity  and  beauty  exist  in  the  works  and 
operations  of  nature,  as  well  as  in  those  of  man,  and  are  expressed 
in  very  many  other  ways,  as  well  as  in  discourse.  But  the  qualities 
now  to  be  mentioned,  Wit  and  Humor,  belong  exclusively  to  man  and 
his  works ;  and,  though  they  may  find  expression  to  some  extent  in 
painting,  sculpture,  music,  and  other  works  of  art,  yet  their  chief 
expression  is  by  means  of  language. 

Examples.  —  A  mountain,  a  cataract,  a  thunder-storm,  a  volcano,  a  lion's  roar, 
may  be  sublime;  a  landscape,  a  flower,  a  bird,  the  upward  soaring  of  the  lark,  or  the 
wavy  motion  of  a  field  of  grain,  may  be  beautiful ;  but  none  of  these  acts  or  thingg 
are  ever  spoken  of  as  witty  or  humorous.  These  epithets  apply  to  human  things 
only,  and  especially  to  the  utterances  of  human  speech. 

III.   WIT. 

For  the  proper  understanding  of  Wit,  it  will  be  necessary  first  to 
consider  separately  the  several  ideas  which  it  includes : 

Ingfredients  of  Wit.  —  1.  First,  then,  surprise  is  an  essential  ingre- 
dient in  wit.     No  saying  is  ever  received  as  witty,  unless  it  disclos«i 
18 


202  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORIC. 

some  unexpected  relation  between  ideas.  Hence,  witticisms  seldom 
bear  repetition,   or  if  repeated,    they  lose   much  of   their  sparkle. 

2.  Secondly,  the  discovery  of  this  unexpected  relation  must  be  of  a 
kind  that  implies  some  mental  superiority  on  the  part  of  the  discov- 
erer. The  discovery  of  a  gold  watch  hanging  on  a  bush,  or  of  a 
calf  with  two  heads,  would  no  doubt  be  unexpected,  and  would  cause 
great  surprise.*  But  there  would  be  nothing  witty  in  it.  It  would 
imply  no  intellectual  smartness  on  the  part  of  the  discoverer.  Any 
body  with  eyes  and  in  the  same  situation,  would  see  the  same  thing. 

3.  Thirdly,  the  unexpected  relation  which  is  discovered,  should  be 
such  as  to  excite  surprise  merely,  and  not  any  higher  emotion,  like 
that  excited  by  the  sublime,  the  beautiful,  or  the  useful. 

JBxample. —  A  Hindoo  epipram  says,  "The  good  man  goes  not  upon  enmity,  but 
rewards  with  kindness  the  very  being  who  injures  him.  So  the  sandal-wood,  while  it 
is  felling,  imparts  to  the  edge  of  the  axe  its  aromatic  flavor."  Here  is  an  unexpected 
relation  discovered  between  felling  sandal-wood  and  j-eturning  good  for  evil.  The 
discovery  of  tliis  relation  shows  smartness,  and  it  excites  surprise.  Why  is  it  not 
witty?  Because  it  is  a  great  deal  more.  The  mere  feeling  of  surprise  is  swallowed 
up  by  the  contemplation  of  the  beauty  of  the  thought.  The  discovery  excites  a 
hig'her  emotion  than  that  of  surprise. 

Another  Kxample.  — There  is  a  French  saying,  that  hypocrisy  is  the  homage 
which  vice  renders  to  virtue.  Here  again  the  observation  is  not  regarded  witty, 
because  it  excites  our  admiration  for  its  justness  and  beauty. 

Definition  of  Wit.^ — Wit  is.  the  discovery  of  such  an 
unexpected  relation  between  ideas  as  will  excite  surprise, 
but  no  other  and  higher  emotion,  like  that,  for  instance, 
excited  by  the  sublime,  the  beautiful,  or  the  useful. 

Some  examples  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  correctness  of  this  defi- 
nition. 

A  French  General.  — Louis  XIV.,  being  molested  by  the  solicitations  of  a 
certain  general  ofiBcer,  cried  out,  loud  enough  to  be  overheard,  "  That  gentleman  is 
the  most  troublesome  officer  in  the  whole  army."  "  Your  majesty's  enemies  more 
than  once  have  said  the  same  thing,"  was  the  witty  reply.  Here,  that  the  man  should 
assent  to  the  royal  invective,  and  that  he  should  show  it  to  be  erroneous,  are  two 
distinct  and  apparently  contradictory  ideas.  Yet  the  two  ideas  are  expressed  in 
Buch  terms,  that  a  relation  between  them  is  seen  to  exist,  and  the  unexpected  dis- 
covery of  this  relation  constitutes  the  wit. 

Contempt  of  Court«  —  A  judge  once  threatened  to  fine  a  lawyer  for  con,- 
tempt  of  Court.  "I  have  expressed  no  contempt  of  Court,"  said  the  lawyer;  "on  the 
foutrary,  I  have  carefully  concealed  my  feelings."  Here  an  unexpected  relation  is 
jliacovered  between  the  apparent  denial,  and  the  real  admission  of  the  contempt. 

♦Sydney  Smith. 


SPECIAL    PROPEKTIES  —  WIT.  203 

"A  spaniel,  a  woman,  and  a  walnut-tree, — 
The  more  you  beat  'em,  the  better  they  be." 

"The  world,  of  fools  has  such  a  store, 
That  he  who  would  not  see  an  ass 
Ikfust  hide  at  home  and  bolt  his  door, 
And  break  his  looking-glass." 

"A  horse  bit  his  master;  — 
How  came  it  to  pass? 
He  heard  the  good  pastor 
Say,  All  flesh  is  grass."' 

Madam  Blaize*  —  One  of  Goldsmith's  minor  poems,  "The  Elegy  on  Madam 
Blaize,"  contains  a  witticism  of  a  peculiar  kind,  at  the  end  of  each  stanza : 

"Good  people  all,  with  one  accord, 
Lament  for  Madam  Blaize, 
Who  never  wanted  a  good  word, — 
From  those  who  spoke  her  praise,''* 

"She  strove  the  neighborhood  to  please 
With  manners  wondrous  winning; 
She  never  followed  wicked  ways, — 
Unless  when  she  was  sinning.''' 

The  Iiap-dog^.  —  Sydney  Smith  tells  of  a  French  lady,  who,  when  her  pet  lap- 
dog  bit  a  piece  out  of  her  footman's  leg,  exclaimed,  "  Ah,  poor  little  beast !  I  hope  it 
won't  make  him  sick." 

JLandseer.  —  When  Landseer,  the  great  animal  painter,  asked  Smith  to  sit  for 
his  picture.  Smith  replied,  "  Is  thy  servant  a  dog,  that  he  should  do  this  thing  ? " 

Mountain  and  Squirrel.  —  Emerson's  poem,  "The  Mountain  and  th* 
Squirrel,"  is  remarkable  for  its  wit. 

The  mountain  and  the  squirrel 
Had  a  quarrel, 
And  the  former  called  the  latter  "Little  Prig." 
Bun  replied  — 
"You  are  doubtless  very  big; 
But  all  sorts  of  wind  and  weather 
Must  be  taken  in  together,  ^ 

To  make  up  a  year. 
And  a  sphere; 
And  I  think  it  no  disgrace 
To  occupy  my  place. 
If  I  'm  not  so  large  as  yqu. 
You  are  not  so  small  as  I, 
And  not  half  so  spry. 

I'll  not  deny  you  make 
A  very  pretty  squirrel-track. 
Talents  differ:  all  is  well  and  wisely  pnt: 
If  I  cannot  carry  forests  on  my  back, 
Neither  can  you  crack  a  nut." 


204  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Henry  "Ward  Beecher  once,  on  the  1st  of  April,  received  a  letter  containing  simply 
the  words,  "  April  Fool."  He  enclosed  it  to  Bonner,  with  a  note,  saying,  "  I  have  often 
heard  of  people's  writing  letters  and  forgetting  to  sign  their  name,  but  I  never  before 
heard  of  a  man's  signing  his  name  and  forgetting  to  write  the  letter." 

Pun,  —  When  the  unexpected  relation  is  not  between 
ideas,  but  between  words,  the  witticism  is  called  a  pun. 

Character  of  the  Pun.  —  This  is  an  inferior  species  of  wit,  and  one 
which  is  often  carried  to  a  tiresome  excess.  Yet  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  puns  are  sometimes  very  eifective. 

Example  from  Franklin.  — When  Hancock,  after  the  signing  of  the 
Peclaration  of  Independence,  urged  upon  the  signers  the  necessity  of  union,  saying, 
"We  must  all  hang  together,''  "Yes,"  said  Franklin,  "or  we  shall  all  hang  separately!" 
This  is  undoubtedly  a  pun,  the  wit  turning  upon  the  new  and  unexpected  meaning 
of  the  word  "  hang,"  as  used  in  the  reply.  But  the  pun  is  of  the  same  serious  and 
elevated  cast  as  that  which  closes  his  celebrated  letter  to  Strahan,  of  about  the  same 
date: 

Anotlier  Example. — "You  are  a  member  of  Parliament,  and  one  of  the 

majority  which  has  doomed  my  country  to  destruction.  You  have  begun  to  burn 
our  towns  and  murder  our  people.  Look  upon  your  hands !  They  are  stained  with 
the  blood  of  your  relations !  You  and  I  were  long  friends.  You  are  now  my  enemy, 
and  I  am  '  Yours,  B.  Franklin." 

Kemark.  — In  regard  to  both  of  these  examples,  it  may  be  remarked 
that  they  can  more  easily  be  received  as  specimens  of  wit  now,  at 
the  distance  of  nearly  a  oentury  from  the  time  of  their  utterance, 
than  they  could  then,  when  they  were  fitted  to  awaken  feelings  of 
anger  and  stern  resolution,  rather  than  laughter. 

Currait'g  Pun.  —  Very  different  from  these  was  the  pun  uttered  on  a  certain 
occasion  by  Gurran.  A  friend,  hearing  some  one  say  " curosity "  for  "curiosity," 
exclaimed,  "  How  that  man  murders  the  language !  "  "  Not  quite  murders,"  said  Cur- 
ran  ;  "he  only  knocks  an  tj[eye)  out." 

And  the  Doctor  told  the  Sexton, 

And  the  Sexton  tolled  the  heU.  — Hood. 

"Death  stops  my  pen,  but  not  my  pension."  —  Hood's  last  pun,  alluding  to  the 
pension  bestowed  upon  his  family. 

Theodore  Hook,  when  asked  for  lines  on  the  death  of  the  King  and  Queen  of  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  wrote : 

"Waiter!  two  Sandwiches !"  cried  Death, 

And  their  wild  Majesties  resigned  their  breath. 

Home  Tooke  said  of  the  poor  poets :  "  We  may  well  be  called  a  Republic  of  letters, 
for  there  is  not  a  sovereign  among  us." 

Here  lies  my  wife,  —  a  sad  slattern  and  shrew; 
If  I  said  I  regretted  her,  I  should  lie  too.  —  Anon. 


SPECIAL    PROPERTIES  —  WIT.  205 

Shakspeare  has  written  three  sonnets,  which  are  an  extended  pun  on  his  own 
name.    One  of  them  is  given  below : 

Whoever  hath  her  wish,  thou  hast  thy  will, 

And  Will  to  boot,  and  will  in  over-plus ; 
More  than  enough  am  I,  that  vex  thee  still. 

To  thy  sweet  will  making  addition  thus. 
"Wilt  thou,  whose  wiU  is  large  and  spacious, 

Not  once  vouchsafe  to  hide  my  vrill  in  thine  f 
Shall  toill  in  others  seem  right  gracious, 

And  in  my  will  no  fair  acceptance  shine? 
The  sea,  all  water,  yet  receives  rain  still, 

And  in  abundance  addeth  to  his  store; 
So  thou,  being  rich  in  will,  add  to  thy  wiU 

One  xoill  of  mine,  to  make  thy  large  toill  more. 
Let  no  unkind,  no  fair  besoechers  kill ; 
Think  all  but  one,  and  me  in  that  one  Will. 

Habit  of  Punning.  —  The  habit  of  punning  should  be  avoided,  both 
in  writing  and  in  conversation.  Facility  in  making  puns  is  soon 
acquired,  and  when  acquired,  almost  always  leads  to  such  an  excess 
as  to  weary  both  readers  and  hearers.  There  are,  of  course,  excep- 
tions to  the  rule.  But,  in  general,  there  are  few  greater  bores  than 
an  inveterate  punster. 

Habit  of  being  Witty.  —  In  the  cultivation  and  indulgence  of  wit 
of  the  higher  kind,  some  care  should  be  used.  A  professed  wit 
incurs  two  dangers :  First,  that  habit  of  mind  which  leads  him  to 
be  ever  on  the  lookout  for  something  striking  and  unexpected,  is 
not  the  one  most  conducive  to  truthfulness.  He  is  under  the  tempt- 
ation of  saying  what  will  amuse  and  startle,  rather  than  what  is 
Btrictly  true.  Secondly,  witticisms  usually  are  made  at  somebody's 
expense.  If  not  barbed  with  malice,  they  yet  leave  a  sting  behind. 
No  man  usually  has  so  many  enemies  as  he  who  has  a  sharp  wit. 
He  may  be  feared,  but  he  is  also  hated. 

I>ang^er8  of  "Wit.  —  "Professed  wits,  though  they  are  generally  courted  for 
the  amusement  they  afford,  are  seldom  respected  for  the  qualities  they  possess.  The 
habit  of  seeing  things  in  a  witty  point  of  view  increases,  and  makes  incursions  from 
its  own  proper  regions  upon  principles  and  opinions  which  are  ever  held  sacred  by 
the  wise  and  good.  A  witty  man  is  a  dramatic  performer ;  in  process  of  time,  he  can 
no  more  exist  without  applause,  than  he  can  exist  without  air ;  if  his  audience  be 
small,  or  if  they  are  inattentive,  or  if  a  new  wit  defrauds  him  of  any  portion  of  his 
admiration,  it  is  all  over  with  him,  —  he  sickens,  and  is  extinguished.  The  applauses 
of  the  theatre  on  which  he  performs  are  so  essential  to  him,  that  he  must  obtain  them 
at  the  expense  of  decency,  friendship,  and  good  feeling. 

"  It  must  always  be  probable,  too,  that  a  mere  wit  is  a  person  of  light  and  frivolous 
understanding.  His  business  is  not  to  discover  relations  of  ideaa  that  are  useful,  and 
have  a  real  influence  upon  life,  but  to  discover  the  more  trifling  relations  which  are 
18*  14 


206  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

only  amusing ;  he  never  looks  at  things  with  the  naked  eye  of  common  sense,  but  is 
always  gazing  at  the  world  through  a  Claude  Lorraine  glass,  —  discovering  a  thou- 
sand appearances  which  are  created  only  by  the  instrument  of  inspection,  and  cover- 
ing every  object  with  factitious  and  unnatural  colors.  In  short,  the  character  of  a 
mere  wit  it  is  impossible  to  consider  as  very  amiable,  very  respectable,  or  very  safe." 
— Sydney  Smith. 

Advantages  of  Wit.  —  "I  have  talked  of  the  danger  of  wit :  I  do  not  mean 
by  that  to  enter  into  commonplace  declamation  against  faculties  because  they  ar« 
dangerous ;  wit  is  dangerous,  eloquence  is  dangerous,  a  talent  for  observation  is 
dangerous,  every  thing  is  dangerous  that  has  efficacy  and  vigor  for  its  characteristics; 
nothing  is  safe  but  mediocrity.  The  business  is,  in  conducting  the  understanding 
well,  to  risk  something;  to  aim  at  uniting  things  that  are  commonly  incompatible. 
The  meaning  of  an  extraordinary  man  is,  that  he  is  eight  men,  not  one  man  ;  that  he 
lias  as  much  wit  as  if  he  had  no  sense,  and  as  much  sense  as  if  he  had  no  wit ;  that 
his  conduct  is  as  judicious  as  if  he  were  the  dullest  of  human  beings,  and  his  imagi- 
nation as  brilliant  as  if  he  were  irretrievably  ruined.  But  when  wit  is  combined 
with  sense  and  information ;  Avhen  it  is  softened  by  benevolence,  and  restrained  by 
strong  principle ;  when  it  is  in  the  hands  of  a  man  who  can  use  it  and  despise  it,  who 
can  be  witty  and  something  much  better  than  witty,  who  loves  honor,  justice,  decency, 
good  nature,  morality,  and  religion  ten  thousand  times  better  than  wit ;  wit  is  then  a 
beautiful  and  delightful  part  of  our  nature. 

"  There  is  no  more  interesting  spectacle  than  to  see  the  effects  of  wit  upon  the  dif- 
ferent charactei-s  of  men ;  than  to  observe  it  expanding  caution,  relaxing  dignity, 
unfreezing  coldness,  teaching  age,  and  care,  and  pain  to  smile,  extorting  reluctant 
gleams  of  pleasure  from  melancholy,  and  charming  even  the  pangs  of  grief.  It  is 
pleasant  to  observe  how  it  penetrates  through  the  coldness  and  awkwardness  of  soci- 
ety, gradually  bringing  men  nearer  together,  and  like  the  combined  force  of  wine  and 
oil,  giving  every  man  a  glad  heart  and  a  shining  countenance.  Genuine  and  innocent 
wit  like  this  is  surely  the  flavor  of  the  mind!  Man  could  direct  his  ways  by  plain 
reason,  and  support  his  life  by  tasteless  food ;  but  God  has  given  us  wit,  and  flavor, 
and  brightness,  and  laughter,  and  perfumes,  to  enliven  the  days  of  man's  pilgrimage, 
and  to  'charm  his  pained  steps  over  the  burning  ma,r\e.' "  — Sydney  Smitli, 

IV.   HUMOR. 

Humor  is,  in  many  respects,  like  wit.  Its  object  is  to 
excite  laughter,  and  it  appeals  accordingly  to  our  sense  of 
the  ridiculous. 

Incongruity.  —  The  laughter  produced  by  humor  comes  from  see- 
ing things  which  are  incongruous.  If  we  see  a  man  pretentiously 
dressed,  but  using  awkward  and  clownish  gestures,  or  employing  big 
words  while  violating  the  most  common  rules  of  grammar,  the  things 
seem  incongruous,  and  we  have  an  immediate  propensity  to  laugh. 

Surprise.  —  To  say  that  a  thing  is  incongruous  is  only  another  way 
of  saying  that  it  is  unexpected.  Surprise,  therefore,  is  an  ingredient 
in  humor  as  it  is  in  wit. 

Contempt.  —  Surprise  and  incongruity  alone,  however,  are  not  suf- 


SPECIAL    PEOPERTIES  —  HUMOR.  207 

ficient  to  constitute  humor.  To  see  a  refined  and  delicate  lady 
accidentally  fallen  into  the  mud,  would  excite  our  pity;  to  see  a 
perfumed  fop  in  the  same  condition  would  make  us  laugh.  There 
would  be  incongruity  and  surprise  in  both  instances ;  but  in  the  one, 
there  are  circumstances  which  awake  a  feeling  of  tenderness  and 
respect,  and  this  feeling  holds  in  abeyance  our  sense  of  the  ludi- 
crous. This  suggests  another  condition  as  necessary  to  humor. 
The  incongruity  which  is  to  make  us  laugh  must  not  be  in  con- 
nection with  circumstances  which  awaken  any  higher  feeling,  such 
as  pity,  fear,  reverence,  and  so  forth.  We  must  have,  in  other 
words,  a  certain  feeling  of  contempt  for  the  person  laughed  at.  We 
would  not  laugh  at  a  man  who  was  in  the  agonies  of  dying,  no  mat- 
ter how  incongruous  and  absurd  might  be  the  contortions  of  his 
face.  The  solemnity  of  the  occasion  holds  all  lighter  emotions  in 
check. 

"It  is  a  beautiful  thing  to  observe  the  boundaries  which  nature  has  affixed  to  the 
ridiculous,  and  to  notice  liow  soon  it  is  swallowed  up  by  the  more  illustrious  feelings 
of  our  minds.  Where  is  the  heart  so  hard  that  could  bear  to  see  the  awkward 
resources  and  contrivances  of  the  poor  turned  into  ridicule?  Who  could  laugh  at  the 
fractured  ruined  body  of  a  soldier?  Who  is  so  voicktd  as  to  amuse  himself  with  the 
infirmities  of  extreme  old  age  ?  or  to  find  subject  for  humor  in  the  weakness  of  a  per- 
ishing, dissolving  body  ?  Who  is  there  that  does  not  feel  himself  disposed  to  over- 
look the  little  peculiarities  of  the  truly  great  and  wise,  and  to  throw  a  veil  over  that 
ridicule  which  they  have  redeemed  by  the  magnitude  of  their  talents  and  the  splen- 
dor of  their  virtues?  Who  ever  thinks  of  turning  into  ridicule  our  great  and  ardent 
hopes  of  a  world  to  come?  Whenever  the  man  of  humor  meddles  with  these  things, 
he  is  astonished  to  find  that  in  all  the  great  feelings  of  their  nature  the  mass  of  man- 
kind always  think  and  act  aright,  that  they  are  ready  enough  to  laugh,  but  that  they 
are  quite  as  ready  to  drive  away  with  indignation  and  contempt  the  light  fool  who 
comes,  with  the  feather  of  wit,  to  crumble  the  bulwarks  of  truth,  and  to  beat  down  the 
Temples  of  God ! "  —  5j/dney  Smith. 

Characteristic.  —  Another  important  thing  to  be  observed  is,  that, 
in  humor,  the  incongruity  which  excites  our  mirth  is  something  char- 
acteristic of  the  person  in  whom  such  incongruity  exists.  It  is 
something  which  would  be  absurd  for  us  to  do,  and  therefore  we 
laugh  at  it,  but  it  is  in  perfect  keeping  for  him.  Unless  it  is  thus  in 
keeping  with  his  character,  it  cannot  be  humorous,  although  it  may 
be  ridiculous.  A  humorous  story  told  of  a  Yankee,  and  in  keeping 
with  the  Yankee  character,  would  cease  to  be  humorous  if  told  of 
an  Irishman  or  a  Dutchman.  The  smart  sayings  of  Sam  Weller 
would  be  laughable  anywhere  ;  but  they  are  humorous  only  as  com- 
ing from  Mr.  Weller  himself.  Humor,  to  be  successful,  demands  a 
fitness  of  things  approaching,  in  sharp  exactness,  the  demands  of 
the  sublime.    The  things  described  must  be  congruous  in  the  very  midst 


208  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

of  their  incongruity.  They  must  exactly  fit  the  character  of  the 
person  to  whom  they  are  attributed,  while  equally  not  fitting  for  us, 
and  therefore  laughed  at  by  us. 

Kindly.  —  Lastly,  in  genuine  humor  there  is  always  a  feeling  of 
kindliness  towards  the  persons  who  are  ridiculed.  We  have  our 
laugh  at  them,  but  in  a  good-natured  way  which  wishes  them  no 
harm.  Humor,  in  this  respect,  differs  widely  from  wit.  It  is  never 
bitter,  it  is  never  malignant.  It  is  perfectly  consistent  with  the 
largest  charity.  Thackeray,  himself  a  humorist  of  high  order,  has 
defined  humor  to  be  a  compound  of  wit  an^  love.  "The  best  hu- 
mor," he  says,  *'  is  that  which  contains  most  humanity,  that  which 
is  flavored  throughout  with  tenderness  and  kindness." 

Humorists  Kind-hearted.  —  In  accordance  with  the  last  remark,  it 
may  be  observed  that  those  writers  who  have  been  most  celebrated 
for  their  wit  have  usually  been  noted  for  their  ill-temper,  while  the 
humorists  have  in  the  main  been  persons  of  kind  and  amiable  dis- 
position. Among  the  humorous  writers  of  recent  times  who  may  be 
quoted  in  illustration  of  this  remark,  are  Lamb,  Hood,  Thackeray, 
and  Dickens,  of  England,  and  Irving,  Lowell,  Holmes,  and  Saxe,  of 
our  own  country. 

Continuance.  —  Wit  and  Humor  differ  in  regard  to  continuance. 
Wit  is  concentrated,  and  comes  at  intervals,  and  by  flashes.  Humor 
is  difi'erent  in  its  nature,  and  is  capable  of  being  continued  through 
a  whole  performance,  and  for  almost  any  length  of  time. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Versification. 

The  present  chapter  has  to  do  with  the  mechanism  of 
Poetry,  rather  than  with  poetry  itself. 

Object  of  Inquiry.  —  It  is  not  necessary,  at  this  point,  to  define 
what  poetry  is,  as  to  its  essential  nature.  It  is  for  the  present 
enough  to  know,  that  the  object  which  the  poet  has  in  presenting  his 
thoughts  in  a  poetical  form  is  to  increase  thereby  the  pleasure  which 
the  mere  thoughts  themselves  might  give  the  reader,  and  that  a  part 
at  least  of  this  increased  pleasure  depends  upon  contrivances  which 
are  wholly  of  a  mechanical  nature. 

THE    FOTTirDATlON   OF   VERSE. 

The  Question.  —  Why  is  it  that  the  same  thoughts,  even 
when  expressed  in  the  same  words,  please  more,  arranged 
in  one  particular  way,  than  they  do  under  some  other  ar- 
rangement, which  conveys  the  sense  with  equal  clearness  ? 

The  Proof.  —  That  the  fact  is  as  it  is  here  stated,  is  a  point  which 
any  one  can  decide  for  himself.  Take,  for  instance,  the  following 
passage  from  Byron,  stripped  of  its  poetical  form : 

"  It  is  the  hour  when  the  nightingale's  high  note  is  heard  from  the  boughs ;  it  is 
the  hour  when  lovers'  vows  in  every  wliispered  word  seem  sweet ;  and  gentle  winds 
and  near  waters  make  music  to  the  lonely  ear.  The  dews  have  lightly  wet  each 
flower,  and  the  stars  are  met  in  the  sky,  and  a  deeper  blue  is  on  the  wave,  and  a 
browner  hue  on  the  leaf,  and  that  clear  obscure  in  the  heaven,  so  softly  dark  and 
darkly  pure,  which  follows  the  decline  of  day,  as  twilight  melts  away  beneath  the 
moon." 

Example  Explained.  —  Here  the  sense  is  just  as  clear  as  in  the 
form  in  which  it  was  originally  written,  and  the  words  are  all  the 

209 


210  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

same :  they  are  only  arranged  differently.  The  words,  even  under 
their  present  arrangement,  exhibit  pleasant  pictures  to  the  imagina- 
tion. But  how  much  is  that  pleasure  enhanced,  when  they  flow 
forth  in  the  melodious  form  in  which  the  poet  placed  them ! 

It  is  the  hour  when  from  the  houghs 

The  nightingale's  high  note  is  heard; 
It  is  the  hour  when  lovers'  vows 

Seem  sweet  in  every  whispered  word; 
And  gentle  winds  and  waters  near 
Make  music  to  the  lonely  ear. 
Each  flower  the  dews  have  lightly  wet, 
And  in  the  sky  the  stars  have  met, 
And  on  the  wave  is  deeper  hlue, 
And  on  the  leaf  a  browner  hue, 
And  in  the  heaven  that  clear  obscure, 
So  softly  dark,  and  darkly  pure, 
Which  follows  the  decline  of  day, 
As  twilight  melts  beneath  the  moon  away. 

There  is  probably  not  a  reader  living  who  does  not  feel  an  increased 
gratification  in  reading  the  passage  in  this  form.  The  question  arises, 
whence  this  increase  of  pleasure?  It  cannot  be  in  the  sense,  for 
that  is  expressed  with  equal  clearness,  and  by  the  same  words,  in 
both  cases. 

Verse  in  an  Unknown  Language.  —  This  point  is  rendered,  if  pos- 
sible, still  more  apparent  by  remarking  that  the  same  principle, 
whatever  it  is,  that  gives  us  this  increase  of  pleasure,  gives  us  pleasure 
in  the  case  even  of  nonsense,  that  is,  in  the  melodious  versification 
of  a  language  which  we  do  not  understand,  and  which  therefore  con- 
veys no  sense  to  us. 

Example.— Take  the  first  line  in  Virgil.  The  sense  is  expressed  clearly 
enough  by  the  words  standing  thus : 

Tu,  Tityre,  sub  fagi  patulae  tegmine  recubans. 
It  is  not  necessary  to  understand  Latin,  to  find  an  agreeable  diflfer- 
ence  when  the  line  is  read  as  Virgil  wrote  it : 

Tityre,  tu  patulae,  recubans  sub  tegmine  fagi. 

Explanation.  —  The  difference  here  cannot  be  in  the  sense.  It 
must  be  in  the  sound ;  and,  to  be  more  specific  still,  not  simply  in 
the  sounds  by  themselves,  for  we  have  the  same  identical  sounds  in 
both  cases,  but  in  the  arrangement  of  the  sounds.  The  ultimate 
analysis  of  the  subject,  therefore,  necessarily  leads  to  some  consid- 
eration of  the  action  of  the  vocal  organs  in  uttering  articulate 
sounds. 


VERSIFICATION.  211 

1.  Vocal  Impulse.  —  The  first  thing  to  be  observed  in  re- 
gard to  this  utterance  is  that  the  vocal  organs  act  by  im- 
pulse.    This  may  be  accepted  as  an  ultimate  fact. 

A  Comparison.  —  The  movement  of  the  voice  in  pronunciation  is 
not  that  of  a  boat  gliding  equably  through  the  water,  but  that  of  a 
man  walking  on  the  ground  by  distinct  steps.  The  voice  goes  step 
by  step  in  the  pronunciation  of  words. 

Comparison  Extended. — Extending  the  metaphor  somewhat,  we  may  say, 
it  is  the  consonant  sound  which  arrests  the  voice  in  its  progress,  just  as  the  ground 
arrests  the  foot  of  the  man  walking.  So  also  it  is  the  vowel  sound,  in  which  tho 
voice  is  prolonged,  that  represents  the  space  passed  over  by  the  traveller  in  going 
from  one  footstep  to  another.  To  carry  the  voice  over  this  space,  that  is,  to  carry  it 
from  one  consonant  upon  which  it  has  rested,  through  a  vowel,  to  a  lodgment  upon 
some  other  consonant,  requires  a  distinct,  fresh  impulse. 

Syllables. — These  impulses  are  only  another  name  for  syllables, 
and  a  syllable  is  so  much  of  a  word  as  is  pronounced  during  one  im- 
pulse of  the  voice.  It  includes  a  vowel  always,  and  generally  one  or 
more  consonants. 

2.  Strong  and  Light  Impulsed.  —  The  second  thing  to  be 
observed  in  this  matter  is  that  in  ordinary  pronunciation 
we  never  utter  a  long  succession  of  syllables  with  precisely 
the  same  degree  of  impulse.  This  also  is  to  be  accepted  as 
an  ultimate  fact. 

Explanation.  —  One  finds  himself  naturally  and  easily  giving  a 
quick,  strong  impulse  to  every  second  or  third  syllable,  and  a  light, 
tripping  one  to  the  syllable  or  syllables  intervening.  The  organs 
seem  to  go  most  easily  and  pleasantly,  not  in  the  military  tread  of 
the  soldier,  but  in  the  hop-step-and-jump  of  schoolboys.  The  syl- 
lable to  which  this  strong  impulse  is  given  is  variously  called  a 
heavy,  a  grave,  or  an  accented  syllable. 

3.  Time  between  Impulses. — A  third  thing  to  be  observed 
is,  that,  after  giving  one  of  these  strong  impulses  or  accents, 
some  little  time  is  required  before  the  organs  are  in  a  con- 
dition to  give  another  accent. 

Accentual  Intervals. — This  interval  between  two  accents  may 
either  be  left  vacant,  or  it  may  be  filled  up  with  one  or  more  light. 


212  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

unaccented  syllables.     When  the  time  is  not  so  filled  up,  there  is, 
after  each  heavy  impulse,  a  pause  or  rest. 

Kxamples. — This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  words  faith,  truth,  mirth,  spite, 
hate.  In  pronouncing  these  words,  thus  arranged,  we  involuntarily  give  to  each  a 
strong  impulse  or  accent,  and  after  each  we  make  a  pause. 

If  to  each  of  these  words  the  syllable /wi  be  added,  msiking  faithful,  truthful,  mirth- 
ful, spiteful,  hateful,  the  additional  light  syllable  will  then  occupy  the  time  before 
occupied  by  the  pause. 

^  The  interval  between  the  accents  may  be  occupied  by  two  light  syllables,  instead 
of  one,  as  in  the  word  faithfully.    These  two  light  syllables  are  then  considered  as 
occupying  exactly  the  same  time  as  the  one  syllable,  or  the  pause. 
The  three  lines, 

Faith,  Truth,  Mirth,  Spite,  Hate, 

Faithful,  Truthful,  Mirthful,  Spiteful,  Hateful, 

Faithfully,         Truthfully,        Mirthfully,        Spitefully,         Hatefully, 

are  all  pronounced  in  exactly  the  same  time,  and  are,  in  versification,  all  counted 
as  of  the  same  length. 

Accentual  Stress  not  Arbitrary.  —  It  is  not,  therefore,  by  custom, 
or  by  the  edicts  of  prosodians  and  orthoepists,  that  certain  syllables, 
at  short  intervals,  receive  a  strong  and  distinguishing  stress  or  im- 
pulse of  the  voice.  On  the  contrary,  this  alternate  action  and  reac- 
tion of  the  voice  is  as  natural  and  involuntary  as  are  the  pulsations 
of  the  heart,  or  the  inspiration  and  expiration  of  the  breath. 

Accent  Paramount.  — Accent  is  thus  a  paramount  law  in 
all  speech,  dividing  it  up  into  convenient  and  agreeable  sec- 
tions or  periods. 

Names  of  Accentual  Divisions.  —  These  sections  or  periods  have 
received  various  names.  They  are  called  sometimes  "eadences," 
because  at  the  termination  of  each  the  voice  seems  to  fall ;  some- 
times "  feet,"  because  the  voice  seems  to  go  through  the  syllables 
step  by  step;  sometimes  "  metres,"  because  thereby  a  line  or  a  sen- 
tence is  meted  or  measured  ;  sometimes  also  "  numbers,"  because  it 
thus  becomes  a  matter  of  count.  All  these  terms  may  be,  and  have 
been,  applied  equally  to  prose  and  verse,  because  all  speech  neces- 
sarily has  the  accentual  divisions  indicated  by  these  names.  Custom, 
however,  has  in  a  great  measure  restricted  the  terms  "feet"  and 
"metres"  to  poetry,  and  "cadences"  to  prose. 

Place  of  the  Accents  Important.  —  The  heavy  or  accented  syllables 
may  be  placed  at  such  convenient  distances  apart  as  to  give  both 
ease  to  the  speaker  and  pleasure  to  the  hearer.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  can  readily  imagine  such  a  combination  of  syllables  with  refer- 


VERSIFICATION.  213 

ence  to  the  accent,  as  to  render  the  pronunciation  at  once  difficult 
and  dissonant. 

Examples.  —  Take  the  following  line,  made  up  for  the  occasion : 

Necessitous  halting  to  for  emphasized  alcohol  eccentricity. 

In  pronouncing  such  a  line,  we  find  the  voice  struggling  like  a 
man  making  his  way  through  a  bog.  How  different  from  this  is  the 
flow  of  the  voice  in  reading  such  a  passage  as  the  following : 

"  I  shall  not  think  my  employment  useless  or  ignoble,  if,  by  my  assistance,  foreign 
nations  and  distant  ages  gain  access  to  the  propagators  of  knowledge,  and  understand 
the  teachers  of  truth;  if  my  labors  afford  light  to  the  repositories  of  science,  and  add 
celebrity  to  Bacon,  to  Hooker,  to  Milton,  and  to  Boyle."  —  Johnson. 

Rhythm.  —  This  easy  and  melodious  flow  of  the  voice  is 
called  the  Rhythm.  It  depends  upon  the  proper  adjust- 
ment and  proportion  of  the  syllables  in  reference  to  the 
accent. 

Both  in  Prose  and  Poetry.  —  This  Rhythm  may  exist  in  prose.  It 
always  does  exist  in  prose  that  is  well  written.  The  passage  just 
quoted  from  Johnson  may  be  divided  into  feet,  varying  in  length 
from  two  syllables  to  five,  and  occurring  in  parts  with  some  degree 
of  regularity.  But  if  a  rhythm  may  be  detected  in  prose,  how 
much  more  is  it  to  be  looked  for  in  poetry,  where  the  accents  occur 
with  almost  undeviating  uniformity,  and  never  with  more  than  two 
intervening  syllables. 

Rhythm  a  Source  of  Pleasure.  —  Such  is  the  constitution  of  the 
human  mind,  that  we  cannot  perceive,  this  rhythm  without  receiving 
a  pleasure  therefrom.  This  pleasure  is  based  upon  the  same  prin- 
ciple as  that  by  which  we  are  pleased  with  the  sight  of  architectural 
proportions,  or  the  sound  of  harmonious  music.  It  is  the  percep- 
tion of  beauty  in  whatever  is  symmetrical. 

The  Original  Question.  —  This  brings  us  back  to  a  direct  answer 
in  part  at  least,  to  the  question  with  which  we  set  out,  namely,  the 
same  sentiments  being  expressed  by  the  same  words,  what  Is  it  that 
makes  the  poetical  arrangement  of  the  words  more  pleasing  than 
the  prose  arrangement?  I  answer:  It  is  the  greater  perfection  of  it» 
Rhythm. 

Difference  of  Prose  and  Poetry  as  to  Rhythm.  —  This  rhythm  exists 
indeed  in  both  prose  and  poetry,  but  in  the  latter  it  is  in  much 
19 


214  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

greater  perfection  than  in  the  former.  Poetry  indeed  contains  a 
recognized  system  of  cadences,  so  divided  as  to  present  sensible 
responses  to  the  ear,  at  regular,  projiortioned,  and  convenient  dis- 
tances ;  prose,  on  the  other  hand,  is  composed  of  all  sorts  of  cadences, 
arranged  without  attention  to  obvious  rule,  divided  into  clauses  that 
have  no  ascertained  proportion,  and  presenting  no  responses  to  the 
ear  at  any  legitimate  or  determined  intervals. 

The  Conclnsion.  —  The  conclusion  of  the  whole  matter  is,  that  a 
part  of  the  pleasure  to  be  derived  from  a  poetical  arrangement  of 
syllables  depends  upon  the  perfection  of  its  rhythm  ;  and  the  per- 
fection of  its  rhythm  depends  upon  its  cadences  being  so  arranged 
as  to  give  that  precise  mixture  of  uniformity  with  variety  in  the 
sound,  which  is  found  to  be  most  pleasing  to  the  ear. 

Bhyme.  —  Rhythm,  however,  is  not  the  only  source  of  pleasure  in 
Terse.  Another  equally  marked  is  to  be  found  in  Rhyme.  Rhyme  is 
like  Rhythm  in  one  respect.  It  is  something  dependent  upon  sound, 
and  independent  of  the  sense.  The  chiming  of  one  syllable  with 
another,  at  certain  regulated  and  recognized  intervals,  gives  a 
pleasure  to  the  hearer  entirely  different  from,  and  additional  to, 
that  derived  from  the  thought  or  meaning. 

Division  of  the  Subject.  — Having  thus  shown  in  a  general  manner 
what  is  the  true  foundation  of  verse,  I  proceed  to  explain  some  of 
the  terms  used  in  reference  to  it,  and  to  exhibit  some  of  the  forms 
employed.  This  will  be  done  under  the  several  heads  of  Rhythm, 
Rhymb,  Blank  Verse,  Mixed  Verse,  Stanzas,  Modern  Versb, 
Elision. 

I.  RHYTHM. 

Rhytlmi  is  the  harmonious  arrangement  of  syllables  in 
reference  to  sound. 

Versification.  —  Versification  is  simply  the  making  of  verses.  It  is 
the  mechanical  part  of  poetry. 

Poetry. —  Poetry  is  a  more  general  term,  Including  versification  and  something 
more  important  in  addition.  There  may  be  correct  versification  without  poetry. 
Tliero  may  indeed  be  correct  verse  without  sense.  A  prominent  exercise  in  the  Latin 
Bcliools  of  England  consists  in  making  what  are  called  "nonsense  verses,"  the 
object  being  simply  to  train  the  ear  to  accuracy  in  the  rules  of  prosody. 

Verse  is  used  in  works  on  Prosody  as  synonymous  with  line. 
A  line  is  callad  a  verse,  f^om  the  Latin  "  verto,"  to  turn,  becauM  at  the  end  of  a  Uin 


VERSIFICATION  —  RHYTHM.  215 

we  tarn  back  to  begin  a  new  line.  In  popular  language  verse  is  often  used  incorrectly 
for  "stanza." 

Stanza.  — A  stanza  is  a  number  of  lines  taken  together  and  so  ad- 
justed to  each  other  as  to  form  one  whole. 

Couplet.  —  Two  successive  lines  rhyming  together  form  a  couplet. 

Triplet.  —  Three  successive  lines  rhyming  together  form  a  triplet. 

Quatrain.  — A  stanza  of  four  lines  is  called  a  quatrain. 

Foot.  —  Foot  is  synonymous  with  metre.  It  is  the  smallest  part 
or  division  of  a  line,  being  the  unit  by  which  a  line  is  measured. 

A  foot  includes  an  accented  syllable  and  the  unaccented  syllable  or  syllables,  If 
there  are  any,  which  accompany  it  in  making  the  accentual  divisions  of  a  line. 

Length  of  a  Line.  — The  length  of  a  line  is  expressed  by  the  number 
of  accents  or  feet  which  it  contains. 

There  is  no  natural  or  necessary  limit  to  the  length  of  a  line.  A  line  very  short, 
containing  only  one  foot  or  two  feet,  is  lacking  in  dignity  and  seriousness,  and  is  never 
used  except  as  an  occasional  variety  among  lines  of  greater  length.  On  the  other 
hand,  very  long  lines  fatigue  the  attention,  and  are  now  generally  abandoned. 

Number  of  Lengths  of  Line. — Practically,  we  have  in  verse  only 
six  varieties  of  length  ;  namely,  lines  of  one  foot,  two  feet,  three 
feet,  four  feet,  five  feet,  and  six  feet,  and  these  lines  are  called 
severally,  Monometers,  Dimeters,  Trimeters^  Tetrameters,  Pentameters,  and 
Hexameters. 

Kind  of  Foot.  —  The  kind  of  foot  depends  upon  two  things  ;  namely, 
the  number  of  unaccented  syllables  that  are  taken  with  the  accented 
one,  and  the  position  of  the  accented  syllable  with  reference  to  these 
unaccented  ones. 

The  number  of  possible  varieties  depends  of  course  upon  the  capabilities  of  the 
vocal  organs.  Wo  may  have,  in  the  first  place,  just  as  many  varieties  as  we  can  con- 
veniently utter  syllables  before  taking  a  fresh  accent.    We  have  thus :  * 

Mercy-,  a  foot  of  two  syllables. 

Merciful,  a  foot  of  three  syllables. 

Mercif  ulll^,  a  foot  of  four  syllables,  &c. 

Each  of  these  varieties,  secondly,  may  be  doubled,  trebled,  quadrupled,  Ac,  accord- 
ing to  the  position  of  the  accented  syllable  in  reference  to  the  unaccented  ones. 
Thus : 

Merciful,  ^ 

Rgferee,  >       all  feet  of  three  syllables, 

Convention,     J 
yet  all  unlike,  the  first  having  the  accented  syllable  at  the  beginning,  the  second  at 
the  end,  and  the  third  in  the  middle. 

*  In  this  chapter,  the  marks  -  «  are  used  to  indicate,  not  long  and  short  syllables, 
but  accented  and  unaccented  ones. 


216  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Greeks  and  Latins.  —  The  Greeks  and  the  Latins  used  many  more 
varieties  of  feet  than  we  do.  Their  syllables  were  divided  into 
longs  and  shorts,  instead  of  accented  and  unaccented,  and  their  pros- 
ody was  much  more  precise  and  determinate  than  ours.  The  popu- 
lar ear  among  them, being  trained  to  greater  accuracy  and  uniform- 
ity in  the  pronunciation  of  syllables,  admitted  readily  greater  variety 
in  its  feet. 

Number  of  Kinds  of  Feet.  — Practically,  in  English,  we  are  limited 
in  verse  to  feet  of  two  syllables  and  feet  of  three  syllables,  and  to 
two  varieties  of  each,  namely,  with  the  accent  either  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  foot,  or  at  the  end. 

This  gives  us  our  four  varieties  of  feet  in  common  use : 

Iambus,      |    v     .    |  iwake  "> 

Trochee,     |   -     v    |  mercf  /   feet  of  two  syllables. 

Anapaest,    I   «  —    I  r^ferSe     |   ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^^  syllables. 
Dactyl,       I   "  ^  "^   1  merciful  J 

We  have  a  fifth  kind  of  foot,  consisting  of  two  syllables  both  accented,  as  twilight, 
lamplight,  outside,  hearsay,  &c.  Such  a  foot  is  called  a  Spondee.  But  v>q  have  no 
whole  lines  made  up  of  spondees.  Consequently  we  have  no  such  thing  as  spondaic 
verse. 

Kinds  and  Varieties  of  Verse.  —  We  have  in  English  the  four  kinds 
of  verse,  growing  out  of  the  kind  of  foot  exclusively  employed  in 
each,  namely.  Iambic^  Trochaic,  Anapaestic,  and  Dactylic;  and  in  each 
kind,  six  varieties,  growing  out  of  the  number  of  feet  used  in  the 
line,  namely,  Monometer,  Dimeter,  Trimeter,  Tetrameter,  Pentameter,  and 
Hexameter  ;  making,  in  all,  twenty-four  varieties. 

These  kinds  and  varieties  are  exhibited  at  the  bottom  of  pages 
218,  219. 

Formerly  a  Heptameter,  or  a  line  of  seven  feet,  was  much  in  use.  What  in 
Hymnology  is  called  Common  Metre  was  onco  Heptameter;  thus, 

Hosanna  to  the  Prince  of  Light,  that  clothed  himself  in  clay ; 
Entered  the  iron  gates  of  death,  and  tore  the  bars  away. 

But  long  lines  like  this  being  found  unwieldy,  and  inconvenient  both  for  writing 
and  printing,  they  have  been  very  generally  broken  into  two  lines,  the  firat  of  four 
feet,  and  the  second  of  three  feet ;  thus :     • 

Ilosanna  to  the  Prince  of  Light, 

That  clothed  himself  in  clay; 
Entered  the  iron  gates  of  death, 

And  tore  the  bars  away. 

Maoaolttjr's  Laya  are  au  example.    Part  of  them  are  printed  aa  Heptameter  lines,  , 


VERSIFICATION  —  RHYTHM.  217 

and  part  are  broken  into  lines  alternately  of  four  feet  and  three  feet.    The  Lay  of 
Horatius  begins  thus : 

Lars  Porsena  of  Clusium 

By  the  Nine  Gods  he  swore, 

That  the  great  house  of  Tarquin 

Should  suffer  wrong  no  more. 

It  might  just  as  well  have  been  printed  as  follows : 

Lars  Porsena  of  Clusium  by  the  Nine  Gods  he  swore, 
That  the  great  house  of  Tarquin  should  suffer  wrong  no  more. 
The  Lay  of  Virginia  reads  thus  : 

Ye  good  men  of  the  Commons,  with  loving  hearts  and  true, 
Who  stand  by  the  bold  Tribunes,  that  still  have  stood  by  you. 

The  metre  and  the  rhythm  are  really  the  same  as  in  Horatiuf^  and  the  verse  might 
have  been  printed  in  the  same  way ;  thus  : 

Te  good  men  of  the  Commons, 

With  loving  hearts  and  true, 
Who  stand  by  the  bold  Tribunes, 

That  still  have  stood  by  you. 

Iambic  Verse.  —  Until  quite  recently,  nine-tenths  of  English  verse 
was  Iambic,  and  probably  three-fourths  of  it  Iambic  Pentameter, 
which  is  the  English  heroic  verse,  corresponding  to  the  Hexameter 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin. 

Trochaic  verses  have  been  used,  though  sparingly,  for  two  centu- 
ries or  more.  Some  of  the  most  finished  Trochaics  in  the  language 
are  found  in  Dryden's  Ode  on  St.  Cecilia's  Day : 

I  Softly  I  sweet  In  |  LydiSn  |  meas&res,  I 
1  Soon  he  |  soothed  his  |  soul  16  \  pleasQree.  1 
War,  he  sung,  is  toil  and  trouble ; 
Honor  but  an  empty  bubble; 
Never  ending,  still  beginning, 

Fighting  still,  and  still  destroying, 
If.  the  world  be  worth  thy  winning. 
Think,  oh !  think  it  worth  enjoying : 
Lovely  Thais  sits  beside  thee, 
Take  the  goods  the  gods  provide  the*. 

Poe's  Raven  is  in  trochaic  measure  : 

I  5nce  Qplon  &  |  midnight  |  drgarf,  | 
While  I  wandered,  weak  and  weary. 
Over  many  a  quaint  and  curious 
Volume  of  forgotten  lore. 

Anapaests  have  been  in  current  use  for  a  long  time. 

Dactylic  verse  was  almost  unknown  in  English  until  the  present 
19* 


218  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETOKIC. 

century.     Even  yet  it  is  not  in  general  use,  although  we  have  had 
some  brilliant  examples  of  it. 

Witness  the  Boat  Song  in  Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake: 

j  Hail  to  thS  I  chief  whd  In  |  trIQmph  &d|vanc68l 

Honored  and  blest  be  the  ever-green  pine  I 

Long  may  the  tree,  in  his  banner  that  glances, 

Flourish,  the  shelter  and  grace  of  our  linel 

Heaven  send  it  happy  dew, 

Earth  lend  it  sap  anew, 


1.  Iambic. 
1. — Monomder,    |  ^     -      I 
I  &wake  I 
2.  — Dimeter,         |   «     -  |     ^^   -      I 
I  t(5  me  I  thS  rose  | 
Z.— Trimmer,       \^       _|w    .    |w        -     | 
I  In  pla|c68  far  |  and  near  | 
A:.  — Tetrameter,    |«        -I^-|*'-|^-| 
and  may  |  at  last  |  m^  wSajry-  age  | 

b.— Pentameter,   \    ^      -        |«       "l""        l*'"!^"! 
I  h6w  15ved  |  hCiw  val|u6d  Once  |  avails  |  th6e  nOt  | 

Q.  — Hexameter,    j      -     -      |  «  -  |«     -      |      «  -       |     «   -|^      -        | 
I  thj^  realm  |  fi5r6vl6r  lasts  |  thj-  6wn  |  M688l,ah  rfiigns  | 


2.  Trochaic. 
1. — Monometer,     |     -    «  | 
I  mgrcj- 1 

2.  — Dimeter,         |  -       **  I     -        «    I 

I  dn  tbS  I  mountain  | 

3.  —  TVimaer,       \       -      '^    |    -        ^     I     -  •    "     I 

I  when  oOr  |  hearts  are  |  mOurnIng  | 

A.— Tetrameter,    \   -      v]      -w|-      w|-         «| 
I  I0vel3^  I  Thais  I  sits  bS  |  side  th6e  | 

b.—FtntameUr,  \  -^  \  -  -I  -  w|-  wl-wj 
I  satyrs  I  by  thS  |  brOoklSt  |  lOve  to  |  daily  I 
,.    .|      -        .    I       -  .|    -        w|    .     w|     ..     I 

I  On  a  I  mountain  |  stretched  be  |  neath  &  |  hOary  |  wHlOw  ( 


VERSIFICATION  —  RHYTHM.  219 

Qayly  to  bourgeon,  and  broadly  to  grow, 

While  every  Highland  gleu 

Sends  our  shout  back  again, 
Roderick  Vich  Alpine  dhu,  ho !  ieroe  I 


Hood's  Bridge  of  Sighs  : 


I  One  mOre  tin|f(5rttlnate,  \ 
Weary  of  breath. 
Rashly  importunate, 
Gone  to  her  death  I 


3.  Anapaestic. 

1.  —  MonomeUr,     |  « ^^  -   | 

I  rgfgree  | 

2.  — Dimeter,         |  «        «        "    I  "      **       -      I 

I  dn  the  plain  |  &8  hS  strode  | 

3.  — Trimeter,        |«       «        -|^         ^-        I^*'-| 

I   I  wotild  hide  |  with  thS  beasts  |  6f  thS  chase  [ 
i.  —  TetramMer,     \      «      w-|w  w      -        |«        w-|vw        -j 

I  when  rgpojsing  that  night  |  5n  m^  pai|16t  6t  striw  ( 

5.  —  Ptntam,eter, 

Iw  w-  1^  ^  -Iww  -Iv/  w-|wv  -1 

I  6n  thS  warm  |  ch6ek  6f  youth  |  th6  gay  smile  |  find  th6  rOso  |  evSr  blSnd  | 

6.  —  Hexameter, 

Iw  V       -  Iw  w-Iw  w        -|ww  •         Iw  w        -|ww>l 

I  bQt  the  leaves  |  ire  b6gin|nlng  td  wlth|6r  and  drOop  |  ftnd  thSy  die  |  In  i  dSy  | 


4.  Dactylic. 
1.  —  Manometer, 

merciful  | 


2.  —  Dimeter, 
8,  —  Trimeter, 

4.  —  Tetrameter, 

5.  —  Pentameter, 

6.  —  Hexameter, 

l-w  wj       .      w  w        I  -  w  w]         .  w  wl  -  W  W|        -WW       ^ 

I  6v6r  thS  I  vall6y  with  |  spged  like  th§  |  wind  ftU  thS  |  steeds  w6re  &  |  gallOpIng  | 


take  h6r  tip  |  tendferlf  I 

-wwl-  ww|-w  v| 

weary  and  |  wOrn  shS  a|  waited  thSe  | 

-w  w|-w  ^'l"  ww|-W  ^1 

fad6d  thd  |  vapdrs  that  |  seemed  td  SnlcOmpass  him  | 

-  w       w       I        -       w  w     1      -w         w       I         -      w  w|     .      WW     I 

life  hath  its  |  pleas  &res  bat  |  fading  are  |  they  as  thS  |  flSwSrSt  | 


220  COMPOSITIOlff    AND    RHETORIC, 

Tennyson's  Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade  : 

I  CannCn  t5  |  right  6f  th6m,  | 
Cannon  to  left  of  them, 
Cannon  in  front  of  them, 

Volleyed  and  thundered: 
Stormed  at  with  shot  and  shell. 
Boldly  they  rode  and  well, 
Into  the  jaws  of  death, 
Into  the  mouth  of  hell, 

Rode  the  six  hundred  I 

Heber'a  Epiphany  Hymn : 

I  Brightest  and  |  best  5f  th6  |  sOns  6f  thS  I  morning,  | 
Dawn  on  our  darkness  and  lend  us  thine  aid, 
Star  of  the  East,  the  horizon  adorning, 
Giiide  where  our  infant  Redeemer  is  laid. 

II.     RHYME. 

The  mechanical  arrangements  which  have  been  described  in  the 
last  few  pages  are  for  the  purpose  of  perfecting  the  Rhythm,  which 
is  one  leading  soHrce  of  the  pleasure  derived  from  the  form,  of  poetry. 
There  is,  however,  in  modern  verse,  an  additional  source  of  pleas- 
ure, of  the  same  nature  as  rhythm,  so  far  at  least  that  equally  with 
rhythm  it  depends  upon  sound,  though  quite  unlike  it  in  other 
respects.     I  mean  Rhyme. 

Origin  of  Rhyme.  —  The  origin  of  Rhyme  is  involved  in  some 
obscurity.  It  has  been  attributed  to  the  nations  of  Northern 
Europe,  to  the  Arabians,  and  to  the  early  Christians.  Rhyming 
hymns  are  found  among  the  writings  of  the  Latin  Fathers  as  early 
as  the  fourth  century.  Some  of  the  Latin  hymns  composed  by  the 
monks  of  the  middle  ages  are  very  sweet  and  beautiful.  The  fol- 
lowing lines  are  from  a  hymn  on  the  Nativity,  written  by  a  German 
monk  of  the  ninth  centijry. 

Tribus  signis 

Deo  dignis 
Dies  ista  colitur: 

Tria  signa 

Laudo  digna 
Coetus  his  persequitur. 

Stella  magos 

Duxit  vagos 
Ad  praesepe  Domini; 

Congaudentcs 

Omncs  gontos 
iyus  psallunt  nomini. 


VERSIFICATION  —  RHYME.  221 

Etymology  of  Rhyme. — The  word  "rhyme"  is  of  doubtful  ety- 
mology. It  is  sometimes  traced  to  the  Greek  rheo,  (pew,)  which,  how- 
ever, would  make  rheum,  not  rhyme.  The  •word  is  spelt  by  some 
distinguished  scholars  "rhime."  Whatever  be  its  orthography  or 
its  etymology,  its  meaning  is  not  a  matter  of  doubt. 

Definition.  — Rhyme  is  a  correspondence  in  sound  between 
syllables  which,  in  the  scheme  of  the  verse,  have  some 
relation  to  each  other. 

Explanation. — Not  every  correspondence  in  sound  makes  a  rhyme. 
It  is  only  when  the  syllables  so  consounding  are  in  some  way  related 
to  each  other,  as,  for  instance,  each  marking  the  end  of  a  line,  or 
marking  one  part  of  a  line  corresponding  to  another  part,  and  so  on. 

It  is  too  much,  we  daily  kear. 

To  wive  and  thrive  both  in  one  year, — Tusser, 

In  this  example,  **hear"  and  "year"  are  related  to  each  other 
as  each  marking  the  end  of  a  line,  and  "wive"  and  "thrive"  are 
related  as  marking  corresponding  parts  of  the  same  line. 

Location  of  Rkyme  not  Limited.  —  There  is  nothing  in  the  nature 
of  Rhyme  to  limit  its  use  to  the  end  of  a  word,  or  to  the  end  of  a 
line.  It  may  be  used  legitimately  at  the  beginning  of  a  wprd,  or  at 
the  beginning,  the  middle,  or  even  in  the  quarters  of  a  line,  and 
historically  it  is  found  in  all  these  positions ;  and  in  each  it  is  sub- 
ject to  laws  which  do  not  necessarily  govern  it  elsewhere. 

Rhyme  Single,  Double,  &c.  — Rhyme  may  be  single,  double,  triple, 
quadruple,  &c.,  according  to  the  number  of  syllables  that  chim« 
together. 

Double  rhymes  are  common. 

Look  not  thou  on  beauty's  charming. 
Sit  thou  still  when  kings  are  arming. 
Taste  not  when  the  wine-cup  glistens. 
Speak  not  when  the  people  listens. —  Scott. 

Triple  rhymes  are  more  rare,  and  are  mostly  imitated  from  th« 
Italian,  in  which  they  abound. 

Oh  ye  immortal  gods,  what  is  theogony  f 
Oh  thou  too  mortal  man,  what  is  philunthropy  f 

Oh  world  that  was,  and  is,  what  is  cosmogony  f 
Some  people  hare  accused  me  of  misanthropy ; 
16 


222  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

And  yet  I  know  no  more  than  the  xnaJiogafty 
That  forms  this  desk,  of  what  they  mean :  —  hjcanthropjf 

I  comprehend,  for  without  transformation 
Men  become  wolves  on  every  slight  occasion. — Byron. 

More  Extended  Rhymes.  —  RhysQes  extending  to  more  than  three 
syllables  are  found  only  among  the  Arabians  and  Persians,  where 
sometimes  every  line  in  a  whole  poem  ends  in  the  same  sound,  and 
that  sound  extends  to  four  and  even  five  syllables. 

Bhyme  at  the  Beginning  of  a  Word.  —  This  is  usually  called  Allite- 
ration, and  it  admits  of  three  varieties. 

(1.)  Where  the  cotTespondence  of  sound  is  between  two  initial  consonants ;  as. 

And  now  is  religion  a  rider,  a  roamer  by  the  streets, 
A  teader  of  Zove-days,  and  a  Zand-buyer.  —  Piers  Plowman. 

This  is  the  old  Saxon  alliteration.  It  prevailed  universally  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
verse,  and  in  that  of  many  of  the  other  northern  nations  cognate  to  the  Saxons,  and 
formed  indeed  the  governing  law  of  their  verse.  In  modern  English  this  consonantal 
alliteration  is  never  used  as  a  prevailing  law  of  the  verse,  but  occurs  frequently 
as  an  occasional  variety,  and  often  with  striking  and  beautiful  effect. 

-Silently  sat  the  artist  alone, 

es»rving  a  Christ  from  the  ivory  bone. 

Little  by  little,  with  toil  and  pain, 

He  won  his  wa.y  through  the  sightless  grain. 

Boker's  Ivcry-Odrver. 

•  The  strength  he  ^^ains  is  from  the  embrace  he  pives.  —  Pope. 

(2.)  Where  the  correspondence  of  sound  is  between  two  initial  vowels. 

This  is  said  to  have  been  a  common  method  of  rhyming  among  the  Irish.*  In 
English  it  is  used  only  as  an  occasional  alliteration,  and  to  give  increased  point  to  an 
antithesis. 

"Charm  ache  with  air." — Shakspeare. 

Oppression  is  the  same 
In  /taly  or  iudia,  in  Austria  or  Albany. 

(3.)  Where  the  correspondence  in  sound  includes  both  a  consonant  and  a  vowel ;  as, 
riding,  rhyming;  ^ddling,jffsting. 

Rhyme  at  the  end  of  a  Word.  —  This  is  the  only  kind  of  correspond- 
ence in  sound  generally  recognized  as  rhyme.  This  likewise  admits 
of  three  varieties. 

(1.)  Where  the  correspondence  in  sound  is  limited  to  the  consonants  following  the 
final  vowel ;  as,  comprehenc?  reprimand.  This  is  not  now  recognized  as  legitimate 
rhyme,  though  said  to  have  once  been  common. 

(2.)  Where  the  correspondence  in  sound  includes  the  final  vowel,  the  consonant 
sound  after  it,  and  the  consonant  sound  before  it. 

*  Guest's  English  Rhythms,  Vol.  I.,  p.  117. 


VERSIFICATION  — RHYME.  223 

Bonaparte  the  rogue 
The  council  did  prorogue. 
This  la  called  the  rich  rhyme,  and  is  said  to  be  in  favor  among  some  races,  though 
distasteful  to  the  English  ear. 

(3.)  Where  the  correspondence  in  sound  includes  the  final  vowel  and  the  consonant 
sound  after  it ;  as,  sibout,  without. 

This  last  is  our  common  rhyme,  and  is  the  only  one  considered  as 
legitimate  in  modern  English  verse. 

Conditions  of  Single  Ehyme. — When  it  is  intended  in  English  to 
make  a  single  syllable  rhyme  to  another  in  the  manner  most  accept- 
able to  the  ear,  the  following  conditions  are  necessary: 

(1.)  The  rhyming  syllable  should  be  an  accented  one.  This  rule  is  violated  in  such 
an  example  as  the  following : 

The  fire  oft  times  he  kind^e^A, 
His  hand  therewith  he  singe-eth. 

(2.)  The  vowel  of  the  rhyming  syllable,  together  with  the  consonant  or  consonants 
following  the  vowel,  should  be  of  precisely  the  same  sound  in  the  two  syllables. 

Thus  "  breath  "  does  not  rhyme  to  "  heath.'"    The  consonant  sounds  are  alike,  but 
the  vowel  sounds  are  not.     So  also  "disease"  does  not  rhyme  to  "  increase,"  because, 
while  the  vowel  sounds  are  alike,  the  consonant  sounds  difi"er.    It  should  be  observed 
too,  in  this  connection,  that  rhyme  is  entirely  a  matter  of  sound,  not  of  spelling. 
Then,  King  of  glory,  come, 

And  with  thy  favor  crown 
This  temple  as  thy  dome, 
This  people  as  thy  own. 

In  this  example  "  come  "  and  "  dome,"  "  crown  "  and  "  own,"  are  very  faulty  as 
rhymes,  though  corresponding  entirely  in  the  spelling. 

(3.)  The  vowel  in  each  of  the  rhyming  syllables  should  be  immediately  preceded  by 
a  consonant,  not  by  another  vowel.    Thus, 
Howsoe'r 
Greet  the  ear, 

is  not  an  agreeable  ryhme.    The  vovels  o  and  e,  preceding  the  rhyming  syllables, 
produce  an  unpleasant  hiatus.    If  a  consonant  is  placed  before  one  of  them,  aa 

Howsoe'er 

Greet  his  ear, 
the  rhyme  is  improved,  though  still  not  perfectly  agreeable.     By  patting,  in  like 
manner,  a  consonant  before  the  other,  as 

Now  or  ne'er 

Greet  his  ear, 
all  objection  is  removed. 

(4.)  The  consonantal  :ound  thus  immediately  preceding  the  rhyming  vowel 
should  differ  in  the  two  syllables.  Thus  omit,  remit,  abound,  rebound,  are  not  agree- 
able rhymes.  They  constitute  the  objectionable  rich  rhyme,  before  described.  What 
the  ear  requires  is  a  difference  of  consonantal  sound  immediately  preceding  the 
rhyming  vowel. 


224  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

(5.)  "When,  in  a  stanza,  two  or  more  lines  rhyme  together,  and  two  or  more  con* 
tiguous  lines  have  another  and  a  different  rhyme,  that  other  rhyme  should  difTer  from 
the  first  in  its  vowel  as  well  as  in  its  consonant  sound.  Thus,  in  a  quatrain,  if  the 
four  lines  should  end  severally  in  the  words  time,  ride,  crime,  bide,  the  alternation 
would  not  be  entirely  satisfactory,  because  of  the  continued  recurrence  of  the  i  sound. 
Change  to  iim^,  rode,  crime,  bode,  and  the  ear  is  satisfied  ;  the  alternation  is  complete. 

Conditions  of  Double  and  Triple  Rhyme.  —  When  the  two  or  three 
final  syllables  of  one  word  rhyme  to  the  two  or  three  final  syllables 
of  another  word,  the  first  of  the  two  or  three  syllables  thus  rhyming 
together  should  be  made  to  observe  all  the  five  conditions  just  given 
for  single  rhyme ;  but,  in  the  remaining  syllable  or  syllables,  all  the 
elements  of  one,  that  is,  the  vowel,  the  consonant  before  it,  and  the 
consonant  after  it,  should  sound  exactly  the  same  as  the  correspond- 
ing elements  in  the  other. 

Thus:  treas-ure, pleas-ure ;  tink-Ung,  spr ink-ling ;  phi-lan-thropy,  mi-san-thropy. 

The  rosy  light  is  dawning 

Upon  the  mountain's  brow ; 
It  is  Sabbath  morning. 

Arise  and  pay  thy  vow. 

The  double  rhymes  in  this  example  are  incorrect,  the  first  syllables  in  each,  "dattm- " 
and  "  morn-,"  not  conforming  to  the  conditions  laid  down  for  single  rhyme. 

Position  of  the  Rhyming  Word  in  the  Line.  —  I  have  spoken  of 
the  place  of  the  rhyme  in  the  word  to  which  it  belongs.  In  this 
respect,  the  rhyme  may  be  placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  in 
which  case  it  is  usually  called  alliteration,  or  it  may  be  placed  at 
the  end  of  a  word,  in  which  case  it  constitutes  the  true  ordinary 
rhyme.  It  now  remains  to  speak  of  the  place  of  the  rhyming  word 
in  the  line. 

Usual  Place.  —  In  the  more  formal  kinds  of  poetry,  the  rhyming 
word  is  usually  placed  at  the  end  of  the  line.  This,  however,  is  not 
the  only  place  where  it  can  be  legitimately  used.  Two  sections  of 
the  same  line  often  rhyme  to  each  other.  The  interlacings  of  the 
rhymes  in  these  ways  in  some  of  our  poets  is  curious  in  the  extreme. 

Then  up  with  your  cup,  till  you  stagger  in  speech, 

And  match  me  this  catch,  though  you  swagger  and  screech.  —  Scott. 

To  feed  my  need,  he  will  me  lead 
■     To  pastures  green  and  fat  ; 
He  forth  brought  im  to  liberate, 
To  waters  delicate.  — Archb.  Parker. 

Variety  of  Forms.  —  It  would  take  a  volume  to  set  forth  fully  th« 


VERSIFICATION  —  BLANK    VERSE.  225 

Tarious  forms  of  verse  occasioned  by  changing  the  position  and  the 
number  of  the  rhymes.  These  forms  are  sometimes  merely  curious 
In  other  cases,  however,  they  are  used  with  almost  magical  effect. 

And  now  there  came  both  mist  and  snow, 

And  it  grew  wondrous  cold, 
And  ice  Tna.st-high  came  floating  by. 

As  green  as  emerald.  —  Coleridge. 

The  splendor  falls  on  castle  walls 

And  snowy  summits  old  in  story; 
The  long  light  shakes  across  the  lakes. 

And  the  wild  cataract  leaps  in  glory. — Tennyson. 

Lightly  and  brightly  breaks  away 

The  morning  from  her  mantle  gray. — Byron, 

It  is  too  much,  we  daily  hear. 

To  wive  and  thrive  both  in  one  year.  —  Tusser. 

Yet  none  but  one  the  sceptre  long  did  sway 

Whose  conquering  name  endures  until  this  day. — Wallctct, 

Let  other  poets  raise  a  fracas 

'Bout  vines  and  wines  and  drunken  Bacchus.  —  Bums. 

And  then  to  see  how  ye 're  negleckit, 

How  huffed  and  cuffed  and  disrespeckit. — Burns. 

Freedom  in  Sectional  Rhymes.  —  It  is  not  essential  that  these  sec- 
tional rhymes  should  conform  to  all  the  conditions  of  rhyme  at  the 
end  of  a  line.     Often  an  apt  consonantal  alliteration  answers  every 

purpose. 

But  he  has  gotten  to  our  grief 

Ane  to  succeed  him, 
A  chiel  wha  '11  soundly  buff  our  heef^ 

I  muckle  dread  him.  —  Bums. 

And  do  I  hear  my  Jennie  own 

That  equal  transports  move  her? 
i  ask  for  dearest  life  alone, 

That  I  may  live  to  love  her.  —  Bums. 

Her  look  was  like  the  morning  star.  —  Bums. 

There  is  nothing  of  the  kind  in  the  language  finer  than  the  exam- 
ple last  quoted. 

III.    BLANK  VERSE. 

Blank  Verse  is  verse  that  does  not  rhyme. 

Most  of  our  blank  verse  is  Iambic  pentameter.     In  this  are  writ- 
ten Milton's   Paradise  Lost,   the  Plays  of  Shakspeare,   and  three- 
20 


226  COMPOSITION    AND    EHETOEIC. 

fourths  at  least  of  the  rest  of  our  heroic  and  dramatic  verse.  So 
commonly  indeed  is  this  form  observed  by  those  who  have  written 
blank  verse,  that  many  have  imagined  it  tp  be  the  only  form  suited 
to  that  species  of  composition.  This,  however,  is  a  mistake.  Blank 
verse  may  be  written  with  two,  three,  or  four  feet  to  the  line,  as 
Well  as  with  five,  and  in  trochaic,  anapaestic,  or  dactylic  measure,  as 
well  as  in  iambic. 

Boker's  "Song  of  the  Earth"  contains  a  great  variety  of  blank 
verse,  in  dififerent  metres  and  in  lines  of  different  lengths;  as  the 
following  in  dactylic  measure  : 

Hark  to  our  |  voices,  0  ]  mother  of  ]  nations ! 
Why  art  thou  dim  when  thy  sisters  are  radiant? 


Or  this  in  iambic  : 


0  vex  I  me  not,  [  ye  evler  burn  ling  plan|eta; 
Nor  sister  call  me,  ye  who  me  afflict. 

Or  this  in  trochaic : 

Daughter  |  of  the  |  sober  |  twilight, 
Lustrous  planet,  ever  hanging. 

Longfellow's  Hiawatha  is  a  familiar  specimen  of  blank  verse  in 
trochaic  tetrameter : 

I  Should  you  |  ask  m6  |  whence  th6se  |  stories,  | 
Whence  these  legends  and  traditions, 
With  the  odors  of  the  forest. 
With  the  dew  and  damp  of  meadows, 
With  the  curling  smoke  of  wigwams, 
With  the  rushing  of  great  rivers. 
With  their  frequent  repetitions. 
And  their  wild  reverberations. 
As  of  thunder  in  the  mountains? 

Evangeline  also  is  in  blank  verse,  being  hexameter,  and  mainly 
dactylic. 

IV.    MIXED  VERSE. 

Law  of  English  Verse.  —  The  prevailing  law  of  English 
verse  is  that  the  feet  in  any  one  line  shall  all  be  of  one 
kind,  that  is,  they  shall  all  be  iambuses,  trochees,  anapaests, 
or  dactyls,  and  the  line  be  accordingly  iambic,  trochaic, 
anapsestic,  or  dactylic. 

Classic  Verse  Different.  —  In  this,  our  verse  differs  essentially  from 
the  verse  of  the  ancients,  in  which  feet  of  different  kinds  are  mixed 


VERSIFICATION  —  MIXED    VERSE.  227 

together  freely  in  the  same  line.  In  the  Latin,  for  instance,  the 
heroic  hexameter,  with  the  exception  of  the  sixth  foot,  may  have 
dactyls  or  spondees  indiflFerently,  according  to  the  choice  or  conve- 
nience of  the  writer  ;  and  these  feet  were  variously  combined  to  suit 
the  varying  turn  of  the  thought.  A  preponderance  of  dactyls  gave 
a  rapid  movement  to  the  verse,  suitable  to  a  light,  gay,  or  beautiful 
subject,  as  in  the  familiar  line* of  Virgil  describing  the  horse-race: 

]  Quadrupeidante  pii|trem  s6ni|tu  quatit  ]  unguis  |  campQm.  ] 

In  reading  this  line  rapidly  one  seems  almost  to  hear  the  clatter- 
ing of  the  horse's  hoofs.* 

A  preponderance  of  spondees,  on  the  other  hand,  made  the  move- 
ment of  the  verse  slow,  stately,  and  solemn.  An  example  familiar 
to  all  students  of  Virgil  is  that  in  which  he  describes  the  slow,  heavy 
motion  of  the  Cyclops  at  work  on  the  anvil: 

j  Oir  initer  seise  mag|na  vi  ]  brachiS  |  toUunt.  j 

Mixed  Verse  in  English.  —  Some  attempts  have  been  made  in  Eng- 
lish to  write  continued  poems  in  this  kind  of  mixed  verse.  The 
most  conspicuous  example  is  Longfellow's  Evangeline,  which  may 
be  described  as  a  poem  in  blank  verse,  hexameter,  and  prevailingly 
dactylic,  but  with  a  free  intermixture  of  iambuses,  trochees,  ana- 
psests,  and  spondees.  The  following  lines  will  serve  to  illustrate  the 
point : 

I  Thi8  IS  the  1  forgst  prilmevai.  Thg  ]  murmilrTng  ]  pines  &nd  thg  ]  heml5cks,  j 
I  Bearded  with  |  moss,  and  in  |  garments  |  green,  indis(tlnct  In  thS  j  twilight,  | 
J  Stand  like  |  Druids  df  J  old,  with  |  voic6s  |  sad  and  pr5jphetic-  | 

Of  Doubtful  Success.  — Even  the  genius  of  Longfellow,  who  is  one 
of  the  best  rhythmists  known  to  our  literature,  has  not  yet  quite 
reconciled  the  English  ear  to  this  kind  of  verse.  Our  syllables  and 
accents  are  not  sufficiently  fixed  and  determinate  to  enable  ordi- 
nary readers  to  perceive  the  rhythmus  without  that  conscious  eflfort 
which  of  itself  mars  the  pleasure. 

A  Successful  Specimen.  —  Perhaps  the  most  successful  epecimen 

*  The  same  general  effect  was  intended  in  the  construction  of  the  English  hexame- 
ter given  on  page  219.  A  similar  and  still  more  striking  efifect  is  produced  by  two  line« 
of  Longfellow's  describing  the  galloping  of  a  horse : 

At  each  bound  he  could  feel  his  scabbard  of  steel 
Smiting  his  stallion's  flanks. 


228  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

ever  produced,  of  English  verse  constructed  on  the  model  of  iht 
Latin  hexameter,  is  the  following: 

I  Clearly-  th6  |  rSst  I  bSlhold  of  thS  [  dark-eyed  |  sOns  Of  X|chafa;  | 
I  Known  tO  m6  |  well  &re  thS  |  lacSs  Cf  |  all;  tb6ir  |  names  1  r6jmemb8r;  | 
I  Two,  two  I  Only-  re; main,  whom  I  |  see  not  ftjmong  the  comjmand6rs,  j 
Castor  fleet  in  the  car,  Polydeuces  bravo  with  the  custus —  | 
Own  dear  brethren  of  mine,  —  one  parent  loved  us  as  infanta. 
Are  they  not  here  in  the  host,  from  the  shores  of  loved  Lacedaemon, 
Or,  though  they  came  with  the  rest  in  the  ships  that  bound  through  the  watera^ 
Dare  they  not  enter  the  fight  or  stand  in  the  council  of  heroes. 
All  for  fear  of  the  shame  and  the  taunts  my  crime  has  awakened? 
So  said  she;  —  they  long  since  In  Earth's  soft  arms  were  reposing 
There,  in  their  own  dear  land,  their  fatherland,  Lacedaemon. — Hawtrey. 

Condition  of  Success.  —  Mixed  verse  seems  to  succeed  best  when 
combined  with  rhyme,  and  when  the  lines  are  comparatively  short. 

A  fine  example  of  this  occurs  in  Longfellow's  Golden  Legend.  It 
is  the  soliloquy  of  Friar  Claus  in  the  wine-cellar  of  the  convent- 

1 1  all  ways  gn|t6r  this  saicrSd  place  [ 

I  "With  a  thought  I  ful,  sOIjemn,  and  revJOrSnt  pace,  | 

I  Pausing  I  long  6|nough  On  |  each  stair  ] 

I  TO  breathe  |  an  6jac|riiat0|ry-  prayer,  | 

I  And  a  ben|6dIc|tion  on  |  the  vines  ) 

I  Which  produce  |  thfese  Ya|riOus  sorts  [  Of  wines.  ] 

Another  tqually  signal  example  is  found  in  Boker's  Ivory-Carver* 

I  sngntiy- 1  sat  thS  |  artist  a|lone, 

I  Carving  a  |  Christ  frOm  thS  ]  IvOrJ-  f  bone. 

I  LlttlS  by-  I  llttlO,  I  with  toil  I  and'  pain,  | 

I  H6  won  I  his  way  ]  thrOugh  the  sight  i  less  grain,  | 

I  That  held  |  and  y6t  hid  |  thS  thing  |  h§  sought,  I 

I  Till  the  work  |  stoOd  up,  i  a  grOw|ing  thought.  } 

Sheridan's  Ride,  by  Read,  and  Barbara  Frietchie,  by  Whittier,  ar« 
familiar  examples  of  the  same  peculiarity. 

I  Cp  frOm  thS  |  SOoth  at  |  brSak  Of  [  day, 
I  Bringing  tO  |  Winch6st6r  [  fresh  dls|may, 
I  The  affrlght|6d  air  |  with  k  shudldOr  bore,  | 
'  I  Like  a  her  aid  In  haste,  |  tO  thO  chief  Italn'a  dOojr,  | 

I  ThS  ter|rlbI6  grumlblO,  and  riimiblO,  and  roar,  j 
I  Telling  thS  j  battlS  |  was  on  |  Once  more,  | 
I  And  Sherldin  twen|ty  miles  |  away.  | 

I  Cp  fW5m  the  I  m5ad0w8  |  rich  with  |  cOm, 
I  Clear  In  thS  |  cool  SSp|t5mb6r  |  mOrn, 
I  The  cins  tfir'd  spires  |  Of  Fr6di6rlck  stand,  f 
I  Qreeu-waird  |  hf  thS  hills  |  Of  Marjj^laud.  | 


VERSIFICATION — STANZAS.  229 


V.    STANZAS. 

A  Stanza  is  a  number  of  lines  taken  together,  and  so 
adjusted  to  each  other  as  to  form  one  whole. 

A  stanza  may  consist  of  almost  any  number  of  lines,  from  two  upwards.  In  the 
formation  of  stanzas,  our  poets  have  an  unlimited  license,  which  they  have  used  freely, 
and  not  always  with  entire  discretion.  Some  particular  stanzas  have  acquired  his- 
torical celebrity. 

Bhythm-Royal. — The  Rhythm-Royal,  or  seven-line  stanza,  invented 
by  Chaucer,  is  one  of  these.  It  is  in  iambic  pentameter.  Here  is 
an  example  from  Shakspeare  : 

So  on  the  tip  of  his  subduing  tongue,  1  -v 

All  kind  of  arguments  and  question  deep,  2  n) 

All  replication  prompt,  and  reason  strong,  3  A 

For  his  advantage  still  did  wake  and  sleep:  4^^ 
To  make  the  weeper  laugh,  the  laugher  weep,      5 

He  had  the  dialect  and  different  skill,  6  "> 

Catching  all  passions  in  his  craft  of  will.  7 

Construction  of  the  Stanza.  —  In  this  stanza,  as  will  be  seen  by 
the  diagram,  the  first  four  lines  make  an  ordinary  quatrain,  the  lines 
rhyming  alternately;  the  fifth  line  repeats  the  rhyme  of  the  fourth, 
and  the  last  two  form  a  couplet. 

Spenserian  Stanza. — Another  still  more  celebrated  stanza  is  that 

invented  by  Spenser,  and  known  as  the  Spenserian  Stanza.     It  is 

the  stanza  in  which  the  Faerie  Queene  was  written.  The  following 
is  the  first  stanza  of  that  poem. 

A  gentle  Knight  was  pricking  on  the  plain, 

Ycladd  in  mightie  armes  and  silver  shielde, 
Wherein  old  dints  of  deepe  woundes  did  remaine, 

The  cruel  markes  of  many  a  bloody  fielde ; 

Yet  armes  till  that  time  did  he  never  wield : 
His  angry  steede  did  chide  his  foaming  bitt, 

As  much  disdayning  to  the  curbe  to  yield : 
Full  jolly  knight  he  seemed,  and  faire  did  sitt, 
As  one  for  knightly  giusts  and  fierce  encounters  fitt. 

Construction  of  the  Stanza.— The  Spenserian  Stanza,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  foregoing  diagram,  consists  of  nine  lines,  all  iambic  penta- 
meter, except  the  last,  which  is  hexameter. 

In  respect  to  the  rhyme,  the  construction  of  the  stanza  is  as  fol- 
lows :  First,  there  are  two  ordiifary  quatrains,  with  lines  rhyming 
alternately.  These  quatrains  are  then  tied  together  by  the  last  line 
20* 


230  COMPOSITIOIS^    AND    RHETORIC. 

of  the  first  quatrain  rhyming  with  the  first  line  of  the  second  qua- 
train. After  the  two  quatrains  are  thus  completed,  a  ninth  line  is 
added,  rhyming  with  the  eighth.  This  ninth  line  has  a  peculiar  and 
very  pleasing  eflfect.  It  seems  to  come  in  as  a  supplementary  har- 
mony, —  a  sort  of  "  linked  sweetness  long  drawn  out,"  on  which  the 
ear  loves  to  linger. 

Its  Uses.  —  This  stanza  has  been  found  to  be  peculiarly  suited  to 
long  poems.  The  most  successful  cultivator  of  it  among  recent  poets 
is  Byron,  a  large  part  of  whose  poetry  is  written  in  it. 

Sonnet  Stanza.  — Of  all  the  stanzas  that  bear  a  recognized  and  well- 
defined  character,  none  is  more  elaborate  in  its  construction  than 
that  appropriated  to  tlie  Sonnet. 

Its  Construction* — The  Sonnet  stanza  consists  of  fourteen  lines,  iambic 
pentameter.  It  is  divided  into  two  distinct  portions,  called  the  Major  and  the  Minor. 
The  Major  division  consists  of  eight  lines,  called  an  Octave,  and  has  but  two  rhymes. 
The  Minor  division  consists  of  six  lines,  called  the  Sestette,  and  has  sometimes  three 
rhymes,  sometimes  two.  The  Octave  is  composed  of  two  quatrains ;  in  each  qua- 
train, the  first  and  fourth  lines  form  one  rhyme,  the  second  and  third  form  the  other. 
Furthermore,  the  rhyme  of  the  first  and  fourth  in  one  quatrain  is  the  same  as  the 
rhyme  of  the  first  and  fourth  in  the  other;  also,  that  of  the  second  and  third  in  one  is 
the  same  as  that  of  the  second  and  third  in  the  other.  Thus  the  whole  Octave  is 
thoroughly  compacted  and  knit  together,  while  each  of  the  two  parts  has  an  organ- 
ization of  its  own.  The  Sestette  is  not  so  fixed  and  rigid  in  its  structure.  One  of 
its  most  common  forms  is  contained  in  the  following  Sonnet  from  Milton.  In  this 
there  are  three  rhymes ;  the  first  line  rhymes  to  the  fourth,  the  second  to  the  fifth, 
and  the  third  to  the  sixth.  Thus  the  Sestette,  equally  with  the  Octave,  is  thoroughly 
knit  together  and  compacted  in  itself.  Unity  of  the  Whole. — To  prevent  the 
two  parts  from  swaying  apart,  care  is  usually  taken  that  there  shall  be  no  grammatical 
break  in  passing  from  the  one  to  the  other,  and  thus  the  whole  structure  is  made  one.* 

1  When  I  consider  how  my  life  is  spent 

2  Ere  half  my  days,  in  this  dark  world  and  wide, 

3  And  that  one  talent,  which  is  death  to  hide, 

4  Lodged  with  me  useless,  though  my  soul  more  bent 
6        To  serve  therewith  my  Maker,  and  present 

6  My  true  account,  lest  he,  returning  chide ; 

7  "Doth  God  exact  day-labor,  light  denied?" 

8  I  fondly  ask.    But  Patience,  to  prevent 

9  That  murmur,  soon  replies,  "God  doth  not  need 

10  Either  man's  work,  or  his  own  gifts.    Who  best 

11  Bear  his  mild  yoke,  they  serve  him  best.     His  state 

12  Is  kingly;  thousands  at  his  bidding  speed, 

13  And  post  o'er  land  and  ocean  without  rest; 

14  They  also  serve  who  only  stand  and  wait." 

*  See  the  "  Book  of  the  Sonnet,"  by  JLeigh  Hunt  and  S.  Adams  Lee  (Roberts 
Brothers)  for  an  exhaustive  discussion  of  everything  pertaining  to  the  history  and 
structure  of  the  Sonnet. 


VERSIFICATION — STANZAS. 


231 


Psalm  and  Hymn  Stanzas.  —  The  variety  of  stanzas  in  successful 
use  is  almost  endless.  It  would  be  impossible  in  a  work  like  this  to 
describe,  or  even  enumerate  them.  It  may  be  proper,  however,  to 
notice  briefly  those  most  commonly  used  in  psalms  and  hymns  for 
public  worship.  The  three  most  common  of  all  are  those  known 
severally  as  Long,  Short,  and  Common  Metre.  These  are  all  qua- 
trains, and  all  in  iambic  metre ;  so  far  they  agree.  But  the  Long 
Metre  stanza  consists  of  tetrameters  ;  the  Common  Metre  has  its  first 
and  third  lines  tetrameter,  and  its  second  and  fourth  trimeter ;  the 
Short  Metre  has  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  lines  trimeter,  while  its 
third  is  tetrameter. 

The  following  formula  exhibits  to  the  eye  the  construction  of 
these  three  familiar  stanzas : 


Long  Metro. 

I     .     -     I     .     -  I  .  -  I 

I     .     -     I     .     -  I  .  -  I 

I     .     -     I     .     -  I  .  -  I 

I     .     -     I     .     -  I  .  -  I 


Common  Metre. 

I  V  -  I  .  -  1  .  -  I  .  ^  j 
I      w      -      I      V      -      I      V      -      I 

|--|v-|.-|._| 
I      .      -      I      .      _      I      w      -      I 


Short  Metre. 


I     -     -    I 


I       w       -       I       . 


-  I 


-  I  .  -  I 

-  I  .  -  I 


In  respect  to  rhyme,  the  stanzas  vary.  Sometimes  the  lines  rhyme 
together  in  couplets,  the  first  rhyming  to  the  second,  and  the  third 
rhyming  to  the  fourth.     Thus : 

Lord,  thou  hast  searched  and  seen  me  through; 

Thine  eye  commands  with  piercing  view 

My  rising  and  my  resting  hours, 

My  heart  and  flesh,  with  all  their  powers. 

Sometimes  the  rhyme  alternates,  the  first  responding  to  the  third, 
and  the  second  to  the  fourth. 


232  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Before  Jehovah's  awful  throne, 

Ye  nations  bow  with  sacred  joy: 
Know  that  the  Lord  is  God  alone: 

He  can  create,  and  he  destroy. 

Frequently  also  the  first  and  third  are  without  rhyme. 

Almighty  God,  thy  word  is  cast, 

Like  seed,  upon  the  ground; 
Now  let  the  dew  of  heaven  descend, 

And  righteous  fruits  abound. 

Long  Particular  Metre.  —  One  stanza,  in  which  a  few  of  our 
hymns  are  written,  is  called  Long  Particular  Metre.  It  is  in  iambic 
metre,  and  consists  of  six  lines,  all  tetrameter,  the  third  and  sixth 
rhyming  together,  and  the  others  rhyming  in  couplets.  The  effect 
is  very  pleasing  to  the  ear,  and  it  seems  rather  surprising  that  the 
stanza  has  not  been  more  cultivated  by  our  hymn  writers.  The  fol- 
lowing is  an  example : 

I  '11  praise  my  Maker  with  my  breath. 
And  when  my  voice  is  lost  in  death. 

Praise  shall  employ  my  nobler  powers : 
My  days  of  praise  shall  ne'er  be  past. 
While  life  and  thought  and  being  last. 

Or  immortality  endures. 

Hallelujah  Metre.  —  Another  stanza  of  considerable  celebrity 
among  psalms  and  hymns  is  that  known  as  Hallelujah  Metre.  It  is 
in  iambic  metre,  and  consists  of  eight  lines.  The  first  four  are  tri- 
meters, rhyming  alternately.  The  last  four  are  dimeters,  with  the 
first  rhyming  to  the  fourth,  and  the  second  rhyming  to  the  third. 

Thus: 

Lord  of  the  worlds  above, 

How  pleasant  and  how  fair 
The  dwellings  of  thy  love, 
Thy  earthly  temples  are ! 
To  thine  abode 
My  heart  aspires 
With  warm  desires, 
To  see  my  God. 

The  sixth  and  seventh  lines  are  often  printed  as  one.     Thus : 

They  go  from  strength  to  strength, 
Through  this  dark  vale  of  tears. 
Till  each  arrives  at  length, 
Till  each  in  heaven  appears; 
0  glorious  seat, 
Where  God  our  King  shall  thither  bring 
Our  willing  feet  I 


VEESIFICATION  —  METRE 


233 


other  Metres.  — No  names  have  been  given  to  the  various  stanzas 
invented  for  those  hymns  which  are  in  trochaic,  anapaestic,  or  dac- 
tylic metre.  In  the  hymn  books,  they  are  absurdly  called  6'8,  7's, 
8's,  &c.,  according  to  the  number  of  syllables  in  a  line,  as  if  that 
alone  gave  any  clue  to  the  rhythmic  movement. 

With  all  my  powera  of  heart  and  tongue 
is  8'8  just  as  much  as 

Guide  me,  0  thou  great  Jehovah. 

The  difference  between  the  lines  is  not  in  the  number  of  syllables, 
but  in  the  movement.     One  is  iambic,  the  other  trochaic. 

The  proper  way  of  designating  such  metres  is  to  add  the  name  of 
the  verse,  (that  is  Anapaestic,  Dactylic,  Trochaic,  &c.,)  immediately 
after  the  figures  representing  the  number  of  syllables.     Thus  : 

"  Saviour,  visit  thy  plantation,"  —  8's,  7's,  4's,  Trochaic, 
"Jesus,  lover  of  my  soul,"  —  7's,  Trochaic. 

**  Sweet  the  moments,  rich  in  blessing,"  —  8's  and  7's,  Trochaic. 
**  I  would  not  live  alway :  I  ask  not  to  stay,"  —  ll's,  Anapsesiic. 
"Thou'rt  gone  to   the  grave,  but  we  will  not  deplore  thee," — • 
12's,  and  ll's,  Anapsestic. 

'•  The  voice  of  free  grace  cries.  Escape  to  the  mountain," — 12's, 
Anapsestic. 

"Daughter  of  Zion,  awake  from  thy  sadness,"  —  ll's,  alternately 
Dactylic  and  Anapsestic. 

"  Brightest  and  best  of  the  sons  of  the  morning,"  —  ll's  and  lO's, 
Dactylic. 

"Come,  ye  disconsolate,  where'er  ye  languish,". —  lis  and  10s, 
Dactylic. 

The  formulas  for  these  metres  are  exhibited  in  the  following 
tables : 


8's,  7's,  4's,  Trochaic 


8.  I 

7.  I 

8.  I 

7.  I 
4. 


—     w  —     w      I  , 

—      W       I        ~      V       I       —      w       I       — 


?34  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC, 


7's,  Trochaic. 


7.  I  -  .  I  -  .  I  -  «  I 

7.  I  -  .  I  -  .  1  -  w  1 

7.  I  -  .  I  -  .  I  -  .  I 

7.  I  -  .  I  -  .  I  -  .  I 


8's  and  7's,  Trochaic, 

8.     I   -  .   I    -  V    I    -  .    I  -  V  I 

7.  I   -  «   1    -  .   I   -  .   I  _ 

8.  I   -  .   I   -  n    -  -   I  -  w   I 
7.     I   -  V   I   -  V   I   -  V   I  - 


ll's,  Anapaestic. 

11.     V     -     I     V     .    -     I I 

11. « - 1  —  - 1  —  - 1 
11.  -  - 1  —  1  —  - 1 

11.     w     -     1     .     w     -     I I 


12's  and  ll's,  Anapasstio. 

12.  w  -   I I    .  .  _   I  .  .-•  I   . 

11-  —   I    —  -   I    —  -   I I 

12,   «  -   !    V  .  -   I    .  «  _   I  «  .  _  I   , 

11.  -  -   I   —  -   I   —  -   I  —  -  I 


12's,  Anapaestic. 

12.  w  -  I   .  .  -   I   .  .  _  I  _  _  I 

12.  -  -   1   -  V  -   I    .  .  _  I  .  .  _  I 

12.  V  -   1    _  _   I    _  _  I  _  _  , 

12.  w  -   I I    .  .  _  I  .  .  _  I 


II'b,  alternately  Dactylic  and  Anapaestic 

11.     I   -  w  w   I    -  V  w   I   -  «  V   I    -  .  (Dactylic.) 

11.  w-|ww-|„w_jw«-|    (Anapaestic.) 

11.     I    -  V  V   1^-  w  V   I   -  V  w   I    -  V  (Dactylic.) 

•  11.  w-|'vv-|v.w-|vw-|    (Anapaeotio.) 


VERSIFICATION  —  MODERN    VERSE.        235 

ll's  and  ID'S  Dactylic 

11.  I-  «w|-vv|-wv|_W 

10.  1     _  .     w     I      -     .     V     I 1     - 

11.  I      _  .     .      I      -     V     w      I      -     w     w      1      -     V 
10.  I     -  V    «     1     -    V    w     1     -    w    .     1     - 

'« Begone,  unbelief,  my  Saviour  is  near,"  is  usually  designated  as 
lO's  and  ll's.  The  true  construction  of  these  stanzas  is  obscured 
by  the  way  in  which  it  is  printed.  For  typographical  convenience 
and  economy  of  space,  two  lines  are  printed  as  one.  If  the  hymn 
be  printed  in  stanzas  of  eight  lines,  the  true  construction  will  at 
once  appear,  and  the  proper  designation  will  be  o's  and  6's,  Ana- 
josMiic.     Thus : 


Begone,  unbelief, 

5. 

w     — 

V    w    —     j 

My  Saviour  is  near. 

5. 

w     — 

V     w      -      j 

And  for  my  relief, 

5. 

w     — 

w  V  -  i 

Will  surely  appear : 

5. 

w     — 

V      w      —       j 

By  prayer  let  me  wrestle. 

6. 

V    V    —     1 

And  He  will  perform; 

5. 

V      — 

w     V     —     1 

With  Christ  in  the  vessel. 

6. 

w     — 

V    w    -     1 

I  smile  at  the  storm. 

5. 

w     — 

j     w    w    —    1 

VI.    MODERN  VERSE  ACCENTUAL,  NOT  SYLLABIC. 

Modern  poetry,  especially  English  poetry,  is  distinguished 
from  that  of  the  ancients  by  the  manner  in  which  the  verses 
are  measured,  or  rather  by  the  manner  in  which  we  obtain 
the  foot  or  measuring  unit. 

Ancient  Verse.  — In  Latin  and  Greek,  syllables  are  divided  into 
long  and  short,  two  short  syllables  being  counted  as  equal  to  one 
long.  A  foot  in  those  languages  is  determined  by  the  length  of  time 
occupied,  — and  the  law  of  the  verse  is  satisfied  by  making  the  foot 
of  the  right  length,  without  reference  to  the  number  of  syllables  or 
the  position  of  the  accent. 

Sxample.  — Take  for  instance  the  vFordfund'us,Sind  its  deriTatives  funda'men, 
fundament' urn.  In  these  three  words,  the  syllable  fund-  is  invariably  long.  No 
shifting  of  the  accent,  no  change  of  tprmination,  aflFects  the  character  of  that  sylla- 
ble, or  its  availability  for  the  purpose  of  versification.  It  still  makes  one-half  a  foot. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  the  English  words  hu'man,  human'ity,  humanita'rian,  the 
availability  of  the  first  syllable  Jm-  for  versification,  is  changed  by  the  changing  of 
the  accent.    According  to  this  view, 


236  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Eights  of  English  Syllables.  —  A  syllable  in  English  has  no  inhe- 
rent, indefeasible  rights  of  its  own,  but  is  subject  to  the  caprice  of 
the  accent,  which  makes  the  same  identical  syllable,  now  the  third, 
and  now  the  half,  of  a  foot,  now  a  part  of  an  iambus,  noW  of  a  tro- 
chee, now  of  an  anapaest,  and  now  of  a  dactyl. 

The  Difference.  —  Modem  verse  is  governed  by  the  accent ; 
ancient  verse  was  governed  by  the  syllables,  which  had  cer- 
tain fixed  and  determinate  lengths.  Modern  verse,  there- 
fore, is  accentual ;  ancient  verse  was  syllabic. 

Importance  of  this  Distinction.  —  This  distinction,  once  made 
thoroughly  familiar,  will  save  a  world  of  technical  rules,  and  will 
throw  light  upon  many  points  connected  with  the  versification  of 
Chaucer,  Spenser,  Shakspeare,  and  Milton,  which  were  stumbling- 
blocks  to  Pope  and  Dryden.  The  four  poets  first  named,  whether 
with  or  without  any  definite  theory  on  the  subject,  wrote  according 
to  the  genius  of  the  language  and  the  dictates  of  a  cultivated  ear. 
That  is,  they  wrote  accentual  verse.  The  two  latter,  desiring  to 
refine  upon  the  subject,  and  not  comprehending  in  this  respect  the 
true  genius  of  modern  verse,  attempted  to  subject  it  to  the  rules  of 
the  classic  models. 

Mistake  of  Pope  and  Dryden.  —  Setting  out  with  an  erroneous  theory 
of  what  English  verse  ought  to  be,  they  found  in  their  predecessors 
much  tnat  was  pronounced  faulty,  that  was  at  least  contrary  to  the 
arbitrary  rules  which  they  had  made  for  the  governnient  of  verse, 
although  they  could  not  but  pronounce  even  the  objectionable  pas- 
sages highly  beautiful  and  harmonious.  Their  procedure  in  this 
respect  was  about  as  wise  as  it  would  be  for  a  painter  to  represent 
the  Cavaliers  and  the  Roundheads,  or  the  Canterbury  Pilgrims, 
dressed  in  the  tunic  and  toga  of  the  old  Romans. 

Present  Opinion.  —  A  more  advanced  stage  of  criticism  has  drawn 
clearly  the  line  between  ancient  verse  and  modern,  and  shown 
wherein  lie  the  genius  and  strength  of  the  latter.  It  has  also  res- 
cued English  verse  from  the  Procrustean  bed  upon  which  it  was 
about  to  be  stretched,  and  has  restored  it  to  the  freedom  of  limb 
characteristic  of  its  northern  birth. 

Present  State  of  English  Verse.  —  English  verse  for  the  last  half 
century  has  been  better  in  every  respect  than  that  of  the  half  cen 
iury  of  which  Alexander  Pope  was  the  centre. 


VERSIFICATION  —  ELISION.  237 


VII.     ELISION. 

One  of  the  points  about  which  the  critics  have  been 
divided  is  the  elision  of  vowels. 

Take  the  following  examples  : 

J  Blest  as  |  the  loiiiwr\tdX  gods  |  is  he.  | 

I  A  pillltfr  of  date  |  deep  on  |  his  front )  engraren.  | 

Explanation.  —  In  each  of  these  examples,  the  foot  printed  in  italics 
gives  us  three  syllables  where  by  analogy  only  two  are  expected. 
Such  examples  afford  not  the  slightest  diflficulty,  when  we  have  once 
admitted  that  our  verse  is  accentual,  not  syllabic.  The  two  syllables 
which  here  accompany  the  accent  are  such  as  can  easily  be  sounded 
while  the  organs  are  recovering  their  position  for  making  a  fresh 
accent,  and  occupy  only  the  time  ordinarily  occupied  by  one  syllable. 

Mistake  of  the  Older  Critics. — Some  of  the  older  critics  supposed 
that,  because  the  examples  are  from  iambic  verse,  where  the  feet 
consist  of  two  syllables,  these  particular  feet  must  be  reduced  to 
two  syllables,  both  in  pronunciation  and.  in  writing.  Hence  in  such 
cases  these  words  are  written  "  th'  immortal,"  and  ''pill'r,"  and  are 
pronounced  accordingly. 

Examples.  —  Among  the  thousands  of  words  which  thus  suffered  syncope  may 
be  named  enmy,  destny,  victry,  prisn,  weltring,  admant,  Ac.  These  words,  in  such 
cases,  are  sometimes  written  as  just  given,  and  sometimes  witli  an  apostrophe  over 
the  place  where  the  elision  has  taken  place,  as  en'my,  desVny,  vicfry,  pris'n,  &c. 

The  True  Solution.  —  According  to  the  theory  now  received,  there 
should  be  no  elision,  either  in  writing  or  in  pronunciation.  The 
whole  word  should  be  written  out,  and  the  two  syllables  which  thus 
occupy  the  place  of  one  should  both  be  pronounced,  but  pronounced 
lightly  so  as  to  occupy  only  the  time  of  one.  This  is  no  more  than 
is  done  in  all  anapaestic  and  dactylic  verse,  and  why  trochaic  and 
iambic  verse  should  not  be  varied  by  occasional  mixtures  of  ana- 
paests and  dactyls  is  more  than  I  can  comprehend. 

Eequirements  of  Modern  Verse.  —  The  rhythm  of  modern  verse, 
be  it  repeated,  is  governed  by  the  accent,  not  by  the  number  or  the 
length  of  the  syllables.  The  beauty  of  the  rhythm  depends.  Indeed, 
in  a  great  measure,  upon  uniformity  in  the  movement.  If  a  number 
of  lines  consists  of  iambuses,  that  is,  of  feet  of  two  syllables  with 
the  accent  on  the  last,  the  ear  gets  accustomed  to  that  movement, 
and  expects  it  to  occur  regularly.  This  uniform  movement  gives 
21  16 


238  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC. 

ease  to  the  reader  and  pleasure  to  the  hearer.     At  the  same  time  it 
may  give  satiety.     Too  uniform  a  rhythm  may  produce  monotony. 

Variety  Allowed. — A  poet,  either  to  interrupt  this  monotony,  or 
to  attract  attention,  or  to  mark  some  transition  in  the  thought  or 
feeling,  may  legitimately  insert  into  one  of  these  lines  a  foot  with 
the  accent  on  the  first  syllable.  That  is,  he  may  make  a  mixed  verse, 
putting  an  occasional  trochee  into  iambic  verse,  or  iambuses  into 
trochaic,  &c.  In  like  manner,  if  a  number  of  lines  consists  of  feet, 
in  which  there  are  two  unaccented  syllables  to  every  accented  one, 
the  ear  expects  a  continuance  of  the  same.  For  the  purposes  just 
named,  however,  anapaests  may  be  legitimately  varied  by  dactyls, 
or  dactyls  by  anapsests,  or  either  of  them  by  iambuses  and  trochees. 

Examples  for  Practice. 

[Note.  — The  extracts  which  follow  are  intended  to  illustrate  some  of  the  varietiw 
of  metre  and  stanza.  The  student  is  expected  to  bring  the  passages  in,  copied  on 
paper,  with  the  versification  marked.  In  marking  the  Tersification,  the  following 
process  is  recommended : 

1.  Each  syllable  that  is  sounded  should  be  marked,  as  being  accented  or  unac- 
cented. For  this  purpose,  we  use  "for  convenience  the  marks  generally  employed  for 
long  and  short,  namely,  -  for  accented,  and  w  for  unaccented.    Thus : 

1.  Ring  out  the  old,  ring  In  thS  new. 

2.  Why  lament  th6  Christian  dying? 

3.  Th6  voice  6f  freS  grace  cries,  escape  td  th6  mount&in. 

4.  Hail  tC  th6  chief  whd  in  triumph  advances. 

2.  When  a  number  of  lines  in  any  piece  have  been  thus  marked,  the  student  must 
determine",  which  he  can  then  do  almost  by  inspection,  Avhether  the  movement  is 
Iambic,  Trochaic,  Anapasstic,  or  Dactylic  (see  pp.  218,  219),  and  must  mark  it  off 
accordingly  into  feet.    Thus : 

1.  I  Ring  out  I  thS  old,  ]  ring  In  |  thS  ngw.  ] 

2.  I  Why  laiment  th5  |  Christian  |  dying?  | 

3.  Th6  voice  |  fSf  freg  grace  |  cries,  escape  |  t6  thS  moiint|aIn. 

4.  I  Hall  to  thS  I  chief  wh6  in  |    trlQmph  adjvanc6s. 

S.  The  proper  designation  should  then  be  given  to  the  verse,  as  being  iambic,  tro- 
chaic, &c.,  and  as  being  monometer,  dimeter,  trimeter,  Ac.  (see  pp.  218,  219).  Thus, 
in  the  lines  here  given,  No.  1  is  Iambic  tetrameter,  No.  2  is  Trochaic  tetrameter.  No.  3 
is  Anapfestic  tetrameter  (the  additional  syllable  at  the  end  making  up  for  the  syllablo 
wanting  at  the  beginning),  and  No.  4  is  Dactylic  trimeter,  with  two  syllables  over. 

4.  In  case  of  the  passage  rhyming,  the  rhyme  should  be  described  as  being  in 
couplets,  quatrains,  sonnet-metre,  Ac,  and  the  formula  for  the  rhyme  and  the  stania 
should  be  given,  as  on  pages  229,  230,  231,  233-235.] 

1.  Nobody  knew  how  the  fisherman  brown, 

With  a  look  of  despair  that  was  half  a  frown. 


YERSIFICATION  —  EXAMPLES.  239 

Faced  his  fate  on  that  furious  night, 
Faced  the  mad  billows  with  hunger  white, 
Just  within  hail  of  a  beacon  light, 
That  shone  on  a  woman  fair  and  trim 
Waiting  for  him. — Lucy  Larcom. 

2.  And  the  sinuous  paths  of  lawn  and  of  moss, 
That  led  through  this  garden  along  and  across, 
Some  open  at  once  to  the  sun  and  the  breeze, 
Some  lost  among  bowers  of  blossoming  trees, 
Were  all  paved  with  daisies  and  delicate  bells, 
As  fair  as  the  fabulous  asphodels, 
And  flow'rets  that,  drooping  as   day  drooping  too, 
Fell  into  pavilions  white,  purple,  and  blue. 
To  roof  the  glow-worm  from  the  evening  dew. 

3.  Hark  to  the  solemn  bell 

Mournfully  pealing  ! 
What  do  its  wailings  tell. 

On  the  ear  stealing  ? 
Seem  they  not  thus  to  say. 
Loved  ones  have  passed  away? 
Ashes  with  ashes  lay, 

List  to  its  pealing. 

4.  'Mid  scenes  of  confusion  and  creature  complaints, 
How  sweet  to  the  soul  is  communion  with  saints ; 
To  find  at  the  banquet  of  mercy  there 's  room, 
And  feel  in  the  presence  of  Jesus  at  home  I 

6.  High  in  yonder  realms  of  light, 

Dwell  the  raptured  saints  above ; 
Far  beyond  our  feeble  sight, 
Happy  in  Immanuel's  love. 

6.  From  Greenland's  icy  mountains. 

From  India's  coral  strand ; 
Where  Afric's  sunny  fountains 

Roll  down  their  golden  sand; 
From  many  an  ancient  river. 

From  many  a  palmy  plain. 
They  call  us  to  deliver 

Their  land  from  error's  chain. — Heher, 


240  COMPOSITION    AND    EHETORIC, 

7.  Lord,  dismiss  us  with  thy  blessing: 

Fill  our  hearts  with  joy  and  peace: 
Let  us  each,  thy  love  possessing, 
Triumph  in  redeeming  grace; 

0  refresh  us. 
Travelling  through  this  wilderness. 

8.  Saviour,  breathe  an  evening  blessing 

Ere  repose  our  spirits  seal : 
Sin  and  want  we  come  confessing, 

Thou  canst  save  and  thou  canst  heal. 
Though  destruction  walk  around  us. 

Though  the  arrow  near  us  fly. 
Angel-guards  from  thee  surround  us, 

We  are  safe  if  thou  art  nigh. 

9.  Sometimes  a  light  surprises 

The  Christian  while  he  sings; 
It  is  the  Lord  who  rises. 

With  healing  in  his  wings; 
When  comforts  are  declining, 

He  grants  the  soul  again 
A  season  of  clear  shining, 

To  cheer  it  after  rain. 

10.  Encompassed  with  clouds  of  distress, 

Just  ready  all  hope  to  resign, 
I  pant  for  the  light  of  thy  face, 
And  fear  it  will  never  be  mine. 

11.  How  happy  are  they 
Who  the  Saviour  obey, 

And  have  laid  up  their  treasures  above  I 

0  what  tongue  can  express 

The  sweet  comfort  and  peace 
Of  a  soul  in  its  earliest  love  ? 

12.  When  through  the  torn  sail  the  wild  tempest  is  streaming, 
When  o'er  the  dark  wave  the  red  lightning  is  gleaming, 
Nor  hope  lends  a  ray,  the  poor  seaman  to  cherish, 
We  fly  to  our  Master;   "Save,  Lord,  or  we  perish." 


VERSIFICATION  —  EXAMPLES.  241 

13.    When  reposing  that  night  on  my  pallet  of  straw, 

By  the  wolf-scaring  fagot  that  guarded  the  slain ; 
At  the  dead  of  the  night  a  sweet  vision  I  saw, 

And  thrice  ere  the  morning  I  dreamt  it  again. — Campbell. 

14.    This  world  is  all  a  fleeting  show, 

For  man's  illusion  given  ; 
The  smiles  of  joy,  the  tears  of  woe, 
Deceitful  shine,  deceitful  flow  — 

There's  nothing  true  but  heaven! — Moore. 

15.    I  saw  from  the  beach  when  the  morning  was  shining, 
A  bark  o'er  the  waters  move  gloriously  on : 
I  came,  when  the  sun  o'er  that  beach  was  declining  — 

The  bark  was  still  there,  but  the  waters  were  gone. — Moore. 

16.    There  is  a  pleasure  in  the  pathless  woods, 
There  is  a  rapture  on  the  lonely  shore. 

There  is  society,  where  none  intrudes, 
By  the  deep  sea,  and  music  in  its  roar ; 
I  love  not  man  the  less,  but  nature  more, 

From  these  our  interviews,  in  which  I  steal 
From  all  I  may  be,  or  have  been  before. 
To  mingle  with  the  universe,  and  feel 
What  I  can  ne'er  express,  yet  cannot  all  conceal. — Byron. 

17.  Comrades,  leave  me  here  a  little,  while  as  yet  'tis  early  morn; 
Leave  me  here,  and  when  you  want  me,  sound  upon  the  bugle- 
horn. 

'Tis  the  place,  and  all  around   it,  as  of  old,  the  curlews  call. 
Dreary  gleams  about  the  moorland  flying  over  Locksley  Hall. 

Tennyson. 

18.  You  must  wake  and  call  me  early,  call  me  early,  mother  dear ; 
To-morrow  '11  be  the  happiest  time  of  all  the  glad  new-year; 
Of  all  the  glad  new-year,  mother,  the  maddest,  merriest  day; 
For  I'm  to  be  Queen-o'-the-May,  mother,  I'm  to  be  Queen-o'' 

the-May.  —  Tennyson. 

19.        Airy,  fairy  Lilian, 

Flitting,  fairy  Lilian, 
When  I  ask  her  if  she  loves  me, 
21* 


242  COMPOSITION    AND    EHETORIC. 

Clasps  her  tiny  hands  above  me, 
•  Laughing  all  she  can  ; 

She'll  not  tell  me  if  she  loves  me, 
Cruel  little  Lilian.  — ^  Tennyson. 

20.  Straight  mine  eye  hath  caught  new  pleasures, 
Whilst  the  landscape  round  it  measures ; 
Russet  lawns,  and  fallow  gray, 
Where  the  nibbling  flocks  do  stray; 
Mountains  on  whose  barren  breast 
The  laboring  clouds  do  often  rest; 
Meadows  trim  with  daisies  pied, 
Shallow  brooks,  and  river  wide: 
Towers  and  battlements  it  sees 
Bosom'd  high  in  tufted  trees, 

Where  perhaps  some  beauty  lies.  —  Milton. 

21.  Spake  full  well  in  language  quaint  and  olden. 
One  who  dwelleth  by  the  castled  Rhine, 
When  he  called  the  flowers,  so  blue  and  golden, 

Stars,  that  in  earth's  firmament  do  shine.  —  Longfellow, 

22.    Not  when  the  buxom  form  which  nature  wears 

Is    pregnant  with  the  lusty  warmth  of  Spring; 
Nor  when  hot  Summer,  sunk  with  what  she  bears, 

Lies  panting  in  her  flowery  off"ering; 
Nor  yet  when  dusty  Autumn  sadly  fares 

In  tattered  garb,  through  which  the  shrewd  winds  sing, 
To  bear  her  treasures  to  the  griping  snares 

Hard  Winter  set  for  the  poor  bankrupt  thing ; 
Not  even  when  Winter,  heir  of  all  the  year, 

Deals,  like  a  miser,  round  his  niggard  board 

The  brimming  plenty  of  his  luscious  hoard;     ' 
No,  not  in  nature,  change  she  howsoe'er. 
Can  I  find  perfect  type  or  worthy  peer 

Of  the  fair  maid  in  whom  my  heart  is  stored.  —  Boker. 

23.  0,  the  Rose  of  Granada  was  blooming  full-blown, 

And  she  laughed  at  the  suitors  who  thought  her  their  own, 
Till  there  came  from  Morocco  the  Moor,  Ala  Jaerr, 
And  he  tossed  from  bis  spear-head  the  horse-tails  in  air, 


VERSIFICATION  —  EXAMPLES.  243 

Saying,  "List  to  me,  lady; 

For  hither  I've  flown, 
0  Rose  of  Granada, 

To  make  thee  my  own."  —  Boker. 

24.  There  was  a  gay  maiden  lived  down  by  the  mill  — 

Ferry  me  over  the  ferry  — 
Her  hair  was  as  bright  as  the  waves  of  a  rill. 
When  the  sun  on  the  brink  of  his  setting  stands  still, 

Her  lips  were  as  full  as  a  cherry.  —  Boker. 

25.  Thou  lingering  star,  with  lessening  ray, 
That  lov'st  to  greet  the  early  morn, 
Again  thou  usher'st  in  the  day 

My  Mary  from  my  soul  was  torn.  —  Burns. 

26.  At  the  close  of  the  day,  when  the  hamlet  is  still, 

And  mortals  the  sweets  of  forgetfulness  prove, 
When  nought  but  the  torrent  is  heard  on  the  hill, 

And  nought  but  the  nightingale's  song  in  the  grove : 
'T  was  thus,  by  the  cave  of  the  mountain  afar. 

While  his  harp  rung  symphonious,  a  hermit  began': 
No  more  with  himself  or  with  nature  at  war, 

He  thought  as  a  sage,  though  he  felt  as  a  man. — Beattie. 

27.  Vital  spark  of  heavenly  flame. 
Quit,  oh,  quit  this  mortal  frame ; 
Trembling,  hoping,  lingering,  flying — 
Oh  the  pain,  the  bliss  of  dying! 
Cease,  fond  Nature,  cease  thy  strife. 
And  let  me  languish  into  life !  —  Pope. 

28.  Near  yonder  copse,  where  once  the  garden  smiled, 
And  still  where  many  a  garden  flower  grows  wild, 
There,  where  a  few  torn  shrubs  the  place  disclose, 
The  village  preacher's  modest  mansion  rose.  —  Goldsmith, 

29.  The  Assyrian  came  down  like  a  wolf  on  the  fold. 
And  his  cohorts  were  gleaming  in  purple  and  gold ; 
And  the  sheen  of  their  spears  was  like  stars  on  the  sea, 
When  the  blue  wave  rolls  nightly  on  dark  Galilee.  — Byron. 


244  COM*POSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

30.  At  midnight,  in  his  guarded  tent, 

The  Turk  was  dreaming  of  the  hour 
When  Greece,  her  knee  in  suppliance  bent, 

Should  tremble  at  his  power  ; 
In  dreams,  through  camp  and  court,  he  bore 
The  trophies  of  a  conqueror ; 

In  dreams,  his  song  of  triumph  heard; 
Then  wore  his  monarch's  signet  ring ; 
Then  press'd  that  monarch's  throne,  —  a  king: 
As  wild  his  thoughts,  and  gay  of  wing, 

As  Eden's  garden  bird. — Halleck, 

81.  Long  years  had  elapsed  since  I  gazed  on  the  scene, 
"Which  my  fancy  still  robed  in  its  freshness  of  green  — 
The  spot  where  a  schoolboy,  all  thoughtless,  I  stray'd. 
By  the  side  of  the  stream,  in  the  gloom  of  the  shade. 

32.  Men  of  thought !  be  up  and  stirring  night  and  day ; 

Sow  the  seed  —  withdraw  the  curtain  —  clear  the  way. 
Men  of  action,  aid  and  cheer  them,  as  ye  may  ! 
There  's  a  fount  about  to  stream, 
There  's  a  light  about  to  beam. 
There  's  a  warmth  about  to  glow, 
There  's  a  flower  about  to  blow ; 
There  's  a  midnight  blackness  changing  into  gray. 
Men  of  thought  and  men  of  action,  clear  the  way  I 

33.  I  come  from  the  ether,  cleft  hotly  aside, 

Through  the  air  of  the  soft  summer  morning ; 
I  come  with  a  song  as  I  dash  on  my  way,  — 
Both  a  dirge  and  a  message  of  warning : 
No  sweet,  idle  dreams,  nor  romance  of  love, 
Nor  poet's  soft  balm-breathing  story 
Of  armor-clad  knight,  at  tournament  gay, 
Where  a  scarf  was  the  guerdon  of  glory  ;  — 

Whistling  so  airily 

Past  the  ear  warily, 

Watching  me  narrowly, 

Crashing  I  come ! 

{Song  of  tht  OoLwnon  Ball.'] 

84.    There's  a  game  much  in  fashion, — I  think  it's  called  euchre 
(Though  I  never  have  playard  it  for  pleasure  or  lucre,) 


VERSIFICATION  —  EXAMPL'ES.  Ii45 

i 

In  which,  when  the  cards  are  in  certain  conditions, 
The  players  appear  to  have  changed  their  positions, 
And  one  of  them  cries,  in  a  confident  tone,  — 
"I  think  I  may  venture  to  go  it  alone!"  —  Saze. 

So.  One  by  one  the  sands  are  flowing, 
One  by  one  the  moments  fall ; 
Some  are  coming,  some  are  going : 

Do  not  strive  to  grasp  them  all. — A.  Procter. 

36.   I  will  go  to  my  tent,  and  lie  down  in  despair  ; 

I  will  paint  me  with  black,  and  will  sever  my  hair ; 
I  will  sit  on  the  shore  where  the  hurricane  blows, 
And  reveal  to  the  god  of  the  tempest  my  woes; 
I  will  weep  for  a  season  on  bitterness  fed, 
For  my  kindred  are  gone  to  the  hills  of  the  dead  ; 
But  they  died  not  by  hunger,  or  lingering  decay,  — 
The  steel  of  the  white  man  hath  swept  them  away  : 
My  wife,  and  my  children,  —  oh,  spare  me  the  tale  ! 
For  who  is  there  left  that  is  kin  to  Geehale  ! 

[Indiari's  Lament] 

37.  Oh !  a  wonderful  stream  is  the  river  Time, 

As  it  runs  through  the  realm  of  tears. 
With  a  faultless  rhythm,  and  a  musical  rhyme, 
And  a  broader  sweep  and  a  surge  sublime. 

As  it  blends  in  the  ocean  of  years! — B.  F.  Taylor, 

38.  Lives  of  great  men  all  remind  us 
We  can  make  our  lives  sublime. 
And  departing,  leave  behind  us 

Footprints  on  the  sands  of  time. — Longfellow, 

89.  Stand  here  by  my  side,  and  turn,  I  pray, 
On  the  lake  below,  thy  gentle  eyes  ; 
The  clouds  hang  over  it,  heavy  and  gray, 

And  dark  and  silent  the  water  lies  ; 
And  out  of  that  frozen  mist  the  snow 
In  wavering  flakes  begins  to  flow  ; 

Flake  after  flake, 
They  sink  in  the  dark  and  silent  lake.  —  Bryant, 

40.  The  mighty  master  smiled  to  see 
That  love  was  in  the  next  degree ; 


246  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETOBIC. 

'T  was  but  a  kindred  strain  to  move ; 
For  pity  melts  the  mind  to  love. 
Softly  sweet,  in  Lydian  measures, 
Soon  he  soothed  his  soul  to  pleasures: 
War,  he  sung,  is  toil  and  trouble  ; 
Honor  but  an  empty  bubble  ; 

Never  ending,  still  beginning, 

Fighting  still,  and  still  destroying: 

If  the  world  be  worth  thy  winning. 
Think,  oh,  think   it  worth  enjoying! 

Lovely  Thais  sits  beside  thee  ; 

Take  the  good  the  gods  provide  thee. 
The  many  rend  the  skies  with  loud  applause ; 
So  love  was  crown' d  ;  but  music  won  the  cause. — Dry  den. 

4K  Forth  into  the  mighty  forest 
Rushed  the  madden'd  Hiawatha; 
In  his  heart  was  deadly  sorrow, 
In  his  face  a  stony  firmness, 
On  his  brow  the  sweat  of  anguish 
Started,  but  it  froze  and  fell  not. — Longfellow. 

42.  With  fingers  weary  and  worn. 
With  eyelids  heavy  and  red, 
A  woman  sat,  in  unwomanly  rags, 
Plying  her  needle  and  thread,  — 
Stitch!  stitch!  stitch! 
In  poverty,  hunger,  and  dirt. 

And  still,  with  a  voice  of  dolorous  pitch, 
She  sang  the  "Song  of  the  Shirt."  —  Hood. 

48.  A  soldier  of  the  Legion  lay  dying  in  Algiers, 

There  was  lack  of  woman's  nursing,  there  was  dearth   of 

woman's  tears ; 
But  a  comrade  stood  beside  him,  while  his  life-blood  ebbed 

away. 
And  bent,  with  pitying  glances,  to  hear  what  he  might  say. 
The  dying  soldier  faltered,  as  he  took  that  comrade's  hand. 
And  he  said :  I  never  more  shall  see  my  own,  my  native  land ; 
Take  a  message,  and  a  token,  to  some  distant  friends  of  mine, 
For  I  was  born  at  Bingen,  —  at  Bingen  on  the  Rhine. 

Mr*.  Norton. 


VERSIFICATION  —  EXAMPLES.  247 

44.  There  is  no  flock,  however  watched  and  tended, 
But  one  dead  lamb  is  there ! 
There  is  no  fireside,  howsoe'er  defended, 
But  has  one  vacant  chair !  —  Longfellow. 

^    45.  There  's  a  bower  of  roses  by  Bendemeer's  stream, 

And  the  nightingale  sings  round  it  all  the  day  long; 
In  the  time  of  my  childhood,  't  was  like  a  sweet  dream, 
To  sit  in  the  roses  and  hear  the  bird's  song.  —  Moore. 

46.  Whom  do  we  dub  as  gentlatnan?     The  knave,  the  fool,  the 
brute. 
If  they  but  own  full  tithe  of  gold,  and  wear  a  courtly  suit ! 
The  parchment  scroll  of  titled  line,  —  the  ribbon  at  the  knee. 
Can  still  suflBce  to  ratify  and  grant  such  high  degree ! 

47.  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day  ; 
The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea; 
The  plowman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me.  —  Gray. 

48.  Once  upon  a  midnight  dreary,  while  I  pondered  weak  and  weary, 
Over  many  a  quaint  and  curious  volume  of  forgotten  lore  — 
While  I  nodded,  nearly  napping,  suddenly  there  came  a  tapping, 
As  of  some  one  gently  rapping,  rapping  at  my  chamber-door. 
"'Tis  some  visitor,"I  muttered,  *'  tapping  at  my  chamber-door — 
Only  this,  and  nothing  more."  —  Poe, 

49.  Singing  through  the  forests. 

Rattling  over  ridges, 
Shooting  under  arches. 

Rumbling  over  bridges  ; 
Whizzing  through  the  mountain. 

Buzzing  o'er  the  vale. 
Bless  me  !  this  is  pleasant, 

Riding  on  the  rail !  —  Saxe. 

60.  I  sometimes  have  thought  in  my  loneliest  of  hours, 
That  lie  on  my  heart  like  the  dew  on  the  flowers. 
Of  a  ramble  I  took,  one  bright  afternoon. 
When  my  heart  was  as  light  as  a  blossom  in  June. 


248  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

The  green  earth  was  moist  with  the  late-fallen  showers, 
The  breeze  fluttered  down  and  blew  open  the  flowers; 
While  a  single  white  cloud  floated  off  in  the  west, 
On  the  white  wing  of  peace,  to  its  haven  of  rest. 

51.  Hear  the  sledges  with  the  bells  — 
Silver  bells  — 
What  a  world  of  merriment  their  melody  foretells  I 
How  they  tinkle,   tinkle,  tinkle, 

In  the  icy  air  of  night! 
While  the  stars  that  oversprinkle 
All  the  heavens,   seem  to  twinkle 

With  a  crystalline  delight; 
Keeping  time,  time,  time. 
In  a  sort  of  Runic  rhyme. 
To  the  tintinnabulation  that  so  musically  wells 
From  the  bells,  bells,  bells,  bells. 
Bells,  bells,  bells  — 
From  the  jingling  and  the  tinkling  of  the  bells. — Poe. 

62.  Speak  gently  of  the  erring, — oh!  do  not  thou  forget, 
However  darkly  stained  by  sin,   he  is  thy  brother  yet: 
Heir  of  the  selfsame  heritage,  child  of  the  selfsame  God, 
He  hath  but  stumbled  in  the  path  thou  hast  in  weakness  trod. 

F.  G.  Lee. 

53.  Oh!    a  dainty  plant  is  the  ivy  green 

That  creepeth  o'er  ruins  old ! 
Of  right  choice  food  are  his  meals,  I  ween, 

In  his  cell  so  low  and  cold. 
The  walls  must  be  crumbled,  the  stones  decayed; 

To   pleasure  his  dainty   whim ; 
And  the  mould'ring  dust  that  years  have  made 

Is  a  merry  meal  for  him. 
Creeping  where  no  life  is  seen, 
A  rare  old  plant  is  the  ivy  green. — Bickem. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

POETRY. 

Defective  Definitions.  —  Most  of  the  definitions  of  Poetry  which 
have  been  proposed  are  open  to  the  objection  that  they  apply  equally 
well  to  certain  kinds  of  prose.  They  describe  what  is  poetical, 
rather  than  what  is  poetry.  Passages  without  number  in  the  prose 
writings  of  Milton,  in  Jeremy  Taylor,  in  Pilgrim's  Progress,  in 
Ruskin,  in  Hawthorne,  and  in  many  other  imaginative  writers,  are 
thoroughly  poetical,  but  they  are  not  poetry. 

Indispensable  Conditions.  —  Nothing  is  really  poetry  unless  it  is  in 
verse.*  This  is  an  indispensable  condition.  Not,  however,  the  only 
condition. 

"  Thirty  days  hath  September, 
April,  June,  and  November," 

is  verse,  but  it  is  not  poetry.  In  order  that  anything  may  be  truly 
accounted  poetry,  it  must,  in  the  first  place,  be  in  the  form  of  verse, 
and,  secondly,  it  must  be  poetical  in  its  essence.  What  constitutes 
verse  has  been  shown  in  the  previous  chapter.  It  remains  now  to 
show  what  makes  a  thing  poetical. 

Poetical  in  Essence.  —  A  piece  of  composition  is  essen- 
tially poetical  when  it  has  these  three  marks  :  1.  It  is  the 

*  "  Notwithstanding  all  that  has  been  advanced  by  some  French  critics,  to  prove 
that  a  work  not  in  metre  may  be  a  poem,  universal  opinion  has  always  given  a  con- 
trary decision."'  —  W/iateli/. 

One  reason  why  writers  on  this  subject  have^generally  failed  in  their  definition  of 
it,  is  that  they  have  begun  wrong.  Verse  being  an  essential  condition  of  poetry,  wa 
should  begin  by  defining  verse,  and  from  that  proceed  to  a  definition  of  poetry. 
When  that  which  is  in  itself  poetical  is  put  in  the  form  of  verse,  we  have  Poetry. 

22  249 


260  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

product  of  an  excited  imagination.     2.  It  is  the  product  of 
a  creative  imagination.     3.  Its  primary  object  is  to  please. 
Let  us  consider  each  of  these  points. 

1.  An  Excited  Imagination. — Poetry  is  the  product  of  an  excited 
imagination.  Shakspeare  refers  to  this  quality,  when  he  speaks  of 
"the  poet's  eye  in  a  fine  frenzy  rolling."  The  poetical  is  distin- 
guished, in  this  respect,  from  the  prosaic,  by  being  raised  above 
what  is  merely  narrative,  descriptive,  argumentative,  or  scientific. 
The  mind,  in  producing  anything  poetical,  is  always  raised  above  its 
ordinary  level  of  thought  and  feeling. 

2.  A  Creative  Imagination. — Poetry  is  equally  the  product  of  a 
creative  imagination.  The  word  poet  (Gr.,  riotrjrjjj)  means  a  maker. 
The  poet  is  one  who  creates  new  forms  of  thought.  This  quality  is 
also  referred  to  by  Shakspeare,  when  he  speaks  of  the  poet's  bodying 
forth  the  forms  of  things  "unknown,"  and  giving  name  and  place  to 
"airy  nothing." 

Tlxe  Process  seems  to  be  this:  The  imagination  first  becomes  excited,  and 
then,  when  thus  excited,  it  becomes  creative.  Both  parts  of  this  process  are  ex- 
pressed in  the  passage  already  referred  to  -. 

The  poet's  eye,  in  a  fine  frenzy  rolling. 

Doth  glance  from  heaven  to  earth,  from  earth  to  heaven ; 

And,  as  imagination  bodies  forth 

The  forms  of  things  unknown,  the  poet's  pen 

Turns  them  to  shape,  and  gives  to  airy  nothing 

A  local  hatiitation  and  a  name. 
^^ 

3.  Primary  Object  to  Please.  —  The  primary  object  of  poetry  is  to 
please.  This  quality  distinguishes  it  from  Oratory,  and  some  of  the 
other  higher  kinds  of  prose,  which  often  have  the  first  and  second 
qualities  here  named,  but  not  the  third.  Their  primary  object  is 
not  to  please,  but  to  move  and  persuade. 

When  Daniel  Webster*  uttered  the  concluding  passage  of  his  memorable  reply  to 
Hayne,  in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  he  was  under  the  influence  of  a  power- 

*  "  When  my  eyes  shall  be  turned  to  behold  for  the  last  time  the  sun  in  heaven, 
may  I  not  see  him  shining  on  the  broken  and  dishonored  fragments  of  a  once  glo- 
rious Union;  on  States  dissevered,  discordant,  belligerent;  on  a  land  rent  with 
civil  feuds,  or  drenched,  it  may  be,  in  fraternal  blood !  Let  their  last  feeble  and 
lingering  glance  rather  behold  the  glorious  ensign  of  the  Republic,  now  known  and 
honored  throughout  the  earth,  still  full  high  advanced,  its  arms  and  trophies  stream- 
ing in  their  original  lustre,  not  a  stripe  erased  or  polluted,  nor  a  single  star  obscured, 
bearing  for  its  motto,  no  such  miserable  interrogatory  as  —  '  What  is  all  this  worth  ? ' 
nor  those  other  words  of  delusion  and  folly  —  '  Liberty  first,  and  Union  afterward  ; ' 
but  everywhere,  spread  all  over  in  characters  of  living  light,  blazing  on  all  its  ampU 


POETRY  —  EPIC.  251 

fblly  excited  imagination,  his  eye,  no  doubt,  "  in  a  fine  frenzy  rolling; "  and  the  ideas 
and  forms  of  thought  bodied  forth  by  him  were  as  truly  the  work  of  a  creative 
imagination  as  anything  ever  penned  by  Shakspeare  or  Milton.  Such  a  passage  also 
undoubtedly  gives  pleasure.  But  that  is  not  its  primary  object.  Had  there  been  a 
suspicion,  in  the  case  just  cited,  that  the  object  of  that  sublime  burst  of  eloquen^-o 
was  merely  to  excite  applause,  the  speaker  would  have  been  hooted  out  of  the  Senate 
in  contempt. 

From  these  elements  it  is  not  difficult  to  proceed  to  a  definition  of 
poetry. 

Definition  of  Poetry.  —  Poetry  may  be  defined  to  be  the 
product  of  an  excited  and  a  creative  imagination,  with  a 
primary  object  to  please,  and  expressed  in  the  form  of  verse. 

Belation  to  other  Arts. — Poetry  is  one  of  the  Fine  Arts,  and  is 
thereby  allied  to  Music,  Painting,  Sculpture,  and  Architecture,  iu 
all  of  which  the  primary  object  is  to  please. 

Kinds  of  Poetry. — The  different  kinds  of  poetry  may  be  con- 
veniently included  under  the  heads  of  Epic,  Dramatic,  Lyric,  Ele- 
giac, Didactic,  Satiric,  and  Pastoral. 

I.  EPIC  POETRY. 

An  Epic  Poem  is  a  poetical  recital  of  some  great  and 
heroic  enterprise. 

Its  High  Character. — Epic  poetry  is  universally*  admitted  to  be  the 
highest  and  most  difficult  kind  of  poetical  composition.  The  num- 
ber of  successful  Epics  is  accordingly  very  limited.  Most  civilized 
nations  have  one,  few  have  more  than  one.  The  three  Epics  of 
greatest  celebrity  are  Homer's  Iliad  in  Greek,  Virgil's  jEneid  in 
Latin,  and  Milton's  Paradise  Lost  in  English. 

The  chief  qualities  of  an  Epic  poem  are  the  following: 

1.  The  first  condition  of  an  Epic  poem  is  that  its  subject 
should  be  great  and  heroic. 

The  Iliad.  —  This  poem  narrates  the  siege  and  downfall  of  Troy, 
the  most  memorable  event  in  the  early  history  of  the  Trojans  and 
the  Greeks,  the  two  most  renowned  nations  of  antiquity. 

folds,  as  they  float  over  the  sea  and  over  the  land,  and  in  every  wind  under  the 
whole  heavens,  that  other  sentiment,  dear  to  every  true  American  heart,  —  LiBEKXT 
AMD  Union,  now  and  forbvjee,  one  and  insbpabable  !  " 


252  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

The  iEneid.  —  This  has  for  its  subject  the  perils  and  labors  of 
jEneas,  the  reputed  founder  of  the  Roman  race,  in  laying  the  foun- 
dations of  that  great  nation  and  city,  which  became  for  a  long  time  the 
mistress  of  the  world. 

Paradise  Lost.  —  Milton's  theme  is  grander  still,  involving  the 
interests,  not  of  one  nation  merely,  but  of  the  whole  human  race, 
and  not  of  men  merely,  but  of  the  great  angelic  host,  and  even  cele- 
brating in  lofty  strains  the  very  "throne  and  equipage  of  God's 
almightiness." 

So  it  will  be  found,  in  regard  to  every  poem  that  has  been  gen- 
erally received  as  an  Epic,  that  its  subject  is  one  that  can  be  truly 
regarded  as  great.  It  must  be  one  that  involves  momentous  interests, 
and  that  calls  for  the  display  of  heroic  achievements. 

2.  The  second  condition  of  an  Epic  poem  is  that  it  should 
form  a  completed  and  connected  whole. 

Unity  of  the  Epic.  —  This  is  what  is  generally  known  as  the  Unity  of 
the  Epic.  By  this  is  meant  that  there  is  some  one  important  event 
or  achievement  which  is  set  before  the  reader  as  the  main  end  of  the 
story.  Not  only  all  the  particular  incidents  must  have  relation  to 
this  event,  and  be  kept  in  subordination  to  it,  but  this  event  must  be 
given  in  its  completeness,  so  that  when  we  are  through  with  the  poem 
we  feel  that  we  have  the  whole  story. 

How  Produced.  —  In  producing  this  completeness,  poets  usually 
employ  the  artifice  of  beginning  in  the  middle  or  near  the  close  of 
the  story,  and  weaving  in  the  antecedent  parts  by  means  of  conver- 
sation among  the  actors.  Thus  the  ^Eneid  begins  with  the  ship- 
wreck of  the  hero  otF  the  coast  of  Carthage,  after  he  has  gone  through 
nearly  three-fourths  of  his  labors  and  exploits.  Being  invited  to  a 
great  feast  by  Queen  Dido,  he,  at  her  request,  entertains  the  com- 
pany with  a  narrative  of  the  antecedent  parts  of  his  story. 

Method  of  Poetical  Narrative.  —  So  in  the  case  of  every  great  epic. 
The  poet  does  not  proceed  in  the  manner  of  a  history,  but  dashes  at 
once  into  the  very  midst  of  tlie  events,  about  the  time  that  they  are 
getting  to  be  most  highly  interesting,  the  early  causes  and  antece- 
dents necessary  to  the  completeness  of  the  whole  being  brought  in, 
from  time  to  time,  in  an  incidental  way.  This  method  of  proceed- 
ing makes  the  whole  more  picturesque,  and  produces  a  more  power- 
ful effect  upon  the  imagination. 


POETRY  —  EPIC.  253 

3.  A  third  condition  of  an  Epic  poem  is  that  it  should 
have  its  hero. 

Explanation.  —  There  should  be  some  one  principal  actor,  in  whose 
exploits  and  destiny  we  are  more  interested  than  in  those  of  any 
other.  This  feature  is  perhaps  implied  in  the  preceding.  Still  it 
is  well  to  give  it  a  distinct  mention.  The  hero  of  the  Iliad  is 
Achilles,  that  of  the  iEneid  is  ^neas,  that  of  Paradise  Lost  is  Man, 
or  Adam,  as  the  representative  of  his  race.  Such  at  least  was  Mil- 
ton's intention,  though  it  must  be  confessed  that,  on  closing  the 
book,  the  figure  which  stands  out  most  boldly  before  the  imagination 
is  that  of  Satan,  the  great  arch-enemy  of  God  and  man. 

4.  A  fourth  condition  of  an  Epic  poem  is  that  it  should 
involve  many  actors  and  a  complicated  plot. 

Explanation.  —  The  story  of  a  single  actor,  like  that  of  Robinson 
Crusoe  on  his  solitary  island,  could  never  be  a  proper  subject  for  an 
epic,  no  matter  how  great  and  heroic  the  man  might  be  in  himself. 
Nor  could  an  epic  be  made  out  of  a  single,  isolated  transaction,  no 
matter  how  momentous  or  sublime  the  transaction  might  be.  A  poem 
on  such  a  subject  would  bear  the  same  relation  to  an  epic,  as  would 
a  duel  to  a  fight  between  two  great  armies. 

5.  A  fifth  condition  of  the  Epic  is  that  its  tone  should  be 
prevailingly  serious  and  earnest. 

Thersites  and  Falstaff.  —  Homer,  it  is  true,  once  raises  a  laugh 
over  the  braggart,  Thersites.  But  this  is  quite  exceptional.  A  story 
containing  a  leading  character  given  to  fun,  like  Falstaff,  for  instance, 
or  a  story  made  up  chiefly  of  scenes  and  characters  of  a  gay  and 
festive  kind,  would  be  manifestly  unsuited  to  the  purposes  of  the 
epic. 

6.  A  sixth  condition  of  the  Epic  is  that  the  story  itself, 
merely  as  a  story,  should  be  interesting. 

Different  from  other  Poetry.  —  The  case  is  different  with  many 
other  kinds  of  poetry.  In  Lyric,  Didactic,  Pastoral,  and  some  other 
kinds  of  poetry,  there  is  either  no  story  at  all,  or  if  any,  not  enough 
to  affect  to  any  considerable  extent  the  merits  of  the  piece.  But  an 
Epic  is  essentially  a  story,  such  in  its  materials  and  its  artistic 
arrangement  that  it  would  be  of  absorbing  interest  even  if  told  in 
22*  17 


254  COMPOSITION    AND    EHETOEIC. 

prose.    This  story,  thus  interesting  in  itself,  receives  the  superadded 
splendors  and  glories  of  the  very  highest  type  of  poetical  beauty. 

Metrical  Romance.  —  The  Metrical  Romance  is  inferior  in  dig- 
nity and  grandeur  to  the  Epic,  but  belongs  essentially  to  the  same 
species  of  composition.  It  is  a  narrative  of  adventure,  and  has 
indeed  nearly  every  quality  described  as  belonging  to  the  Epic, 
but  has  them  in  a  less  marked  degree. 

Sxamples.  —  The  Faerie  Queene,  by  Spenser,  if  indeed  it  be  not  reckoned  as  an 
Epic,  yet  certainly  comes  very  nearly  to  that  level,  and  must  be  regarded  as  the  high- 
est specimen  extant  of  the  Metrical  Romance.  The  number  of  poems  of  this  class  is 
Tery  great.  In  our  older  literature  we  may  instance  the  Romaunt  of  the  Rose,  by 
Chaucer,  and  in  later  times  the  Lady  of  the  Lake,  and  Marmion,  by  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
and  the  Idyls  of  the  King,  by  Tennyson. 

Metrical  Chronicle.  — The  Chronicle  belongs  to  the  same  gen- 
eral class  of  compositions,  being  narrative  in  form,  and  relying  very 
much  upon  the  story  for  its  effect,  but  it  is  inferior  in  style  and  dig- 
nity to  the  Romance. 

II.     DRAMATIC    POETRY. 

Dramatic  Poetry  ranks  with  the  Epic  in  dignity  and 
excellence,  and  has  nearly  all  its  essential  characteristics. 

Likeness  to  the  Epic. — Like  the  Epic,  the  Drama,  at  least  in  its 
higher  forms,  must  have  some  great  and  heroic  transaction  for  its 
subject;  it  must,  even  more  than  the  Epic,  maintain  unity  in  the 
action ;  it  must  hare  one  leading  character  or  hero ;  it  must  have 
some  complication  of  plot. 

TTnlikeness.  —  In  its  form,  the  Drama  is  essentially  unlike  the  Epio 
and  all  other  narrative  poems.  What  they  narrate  as  having  been 
done,  the  Drama  represents  as  actually  doing  before  our  eyes.*  In 
the  Drama,  the  action  is  carried  on  solely  by  means  of  dialogue 
between  the  actors.  In  epic  poetry,  indeed,  the  narrative  often 
becomes  dramatic,  and  takes  the  form  of  dialogue.  But  in  the 
drama,  the  form  is  exclusively  that  of  dialogue. 

The  Unities.  —  Besides  unity  of  subject,  vv^hich  it  has  in  common 
with  the  Epic,  the  Drama  requires  also  two  other  unities,  namely, 
those  of  time  and  place. 

Unity  of  Time.  —  By  unity  of  time  was  meant  originally  that  the 
*  Tb*  word  is  from  the  Oreek  ip<ina  (drama),  and  signifiefl  action,  or  doing. 


POETRY  —  DRAMATIC.  255 

transactions  should  be  capable  of  occurring  within  the  space  of  time 
ordinarily  occupied  in  the  performance  of  a  play,  say  about  three 
hours.  The  rule,  however,  was  early  enlarged  so  as  to  allow  one 
whole  day  for  the  transactions.  Since  the  division  of  plays  into 
five  Acts,  which  prevails  in  all  modern  dramas,  this  rule  about  unity 
of  time  is  very  much  disregarded. 

Unity  of  Place.  — A  like  change  has  taken  place  in  regard  to  unity 
of  place.  When,  as  in  the  earliest  form  of  the  drama,  the  action 
went  straight  forward  without  interruption,  the  curtain  never  fall- 
ing and  the  stage  never  being  left  vacant  of  actors,  until  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  whole,  it  followed  of  necessity  that  the  transactions 
should  all  occur  in  one  place  and  in  one  short  space  of  time.  But 
now,  when  at  brief  intervals  the  scene  closes  entirely,  the  time  and 
place  may  without  difficulty  be  changed  at  each  fall  of  the  curtain, 
provided  the  changes  be  not  such  as  to  interfere  with  oneness  of 
general  eflfect. 

Acts  and  Scenes.  —  Modern  dramas  are  by  general  custom  divided 
into  five  Acts,  and  each  Act  is  usually  composed  of  several  Scenes. 

Kinds  of  Drama.  —  The  two  principal  kinds  of  drama  are  Tragedy 
and  Comedy. 

Tragedy. — Tragedy  is  more  akin  to  the  Epic,  being  serious  and 
dignified,  and  having  for  its  subject  some  great  transaction.  It 
undertakes  to  delineate  the  strongest  passions,  and  to  move  the  soul 
of  the  spectator  in  the  highest  degree.  It  is  especially  conversant 
with  scenes  of  suffering  and  violence,  and  ends  almost  uniformly 
with  the  deai;h  of  the  person  or  persons  in  whom  the  spectator  is 
most  interested. 

Comedy.  —  Comedy,  on  the  other  hand,  aims  to  amuse,  and  seeks 
chiefly  the  topics  of  common  life.  It  deals  largely  in  ridicule  and 
satire,  and  often  ends  in  the  marriage  or  other  good  fortune  of 
the  principal  personages. 

Greek  Dramatists.  —  Among  the  Greeks,  ^schylus,  Euripedes,  and 
Sophocles  were  particularly  distinjruished  as  writers  of  Tragedy,  and 
Aristophanes  excelled  all  others  as  a  writer  of  Comedy. 

Shakspeare.  —  The  greatest  dramatist  in  English  literature,  the 
greatest  perhaps  in  all  literature,  is  Shakspeare.  His  plays  are  very 
numerous,  and  are  divided  into  Tragedies,  Comedies,  and  what  he 
•alls  Histories.     These  last  are  dramatic  representations  of  portions 


256  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORIO. 

of  English  history,  and  are  mainly  tragic  in  their  character,  though 
having  a  large  comic  element. 

Farce. — A  Farce  is  a  short  dramatic  composition,  having  for  its 
object  simply  to  excite  mirth.  It  seldom  extends  to  more  than  two 
Acts,  and  generally  consists  of  but  a  single  Act. 

Opera. — An  Opera  is  a  drama  set  to  music,  the  actors  singing 
the  parts  instead  of  speaking  them. 

Melodrama. — A  Melodrama  is  a  drama  in  which  some  parts  are 
spoken  and  some  are  sung. 

Both  in  Opera  and  Melodrama,  the  author  seeks  to  produce  effects 
by  startling  situations  and  gorgeous  scenery  and  dresses,  such  as 
would  be  out  of  place  in  Tragedy  or  Comedy. 

III.   LYRIC    POETRY. 

Lyric  Poetry,  as  its  name  denotes,  meant  originally  poetry 
intended  to  be  sung  to  the  accompaniment  of  the  lyre. 

Its  Character. — Lyric  poetry  is,  in  every  nation,  the  oldest  form 
of  poetry  known  to  its  literature,  and  contains  some  of  its  higlaest 
specimens  of  the  poetic  art. 

Different  from  Epic.  —  Lyric  poetry  is  used  mainly  for  the  expres- 
sion of  sentiment  and  emotion,  and  is  thus  distinguished  from  the 
Epic,  which  narrates  facts.  It  expresses  the  sentiments  and  emotions 
of  the  author,  in  his  own  proper  person,  and  is  thus  distinguished 
from  the  Drama,  in  which  the  author  disappears  entirely,  the 
thoughts  expressed  being  those  of  the  persons  of  the  Drama. 

Odes.  —  The  most  common  form  of  Lyric  poetry  is  the 
Ode  or  Song.  Odes  or  Songs  are  of  six  kinds;  Sacred, 
Heroic,  Moral,  Amatory,  Comic,  and  Bacchanalian. 

1.  Sacred  Odes.  —  These  are  usually  called  Psalms  or  Hymns. 
They  are  composed  on  religious  subjects,  and  are  for  the  most  part 
addressed  directly  to  God. 

Hymnic  Poetry.  —  This  is  found  in  the  literature  of  every  nation. 
The  Hebrew  Psalms  are  among  the  highest  specimens  of  lyric  poetry. 
In  modern  times  this  species  of  poetry  has  been  cultivated  much  more 
than  in  the  early  ages,  in  consequence  of  the  extent  to  which  Psalms 
and  Hymns  are  used  in  the  religious  worship  of  all  Christian  churches. 


POETRY  —  LYRIC.  257 

The  number  of  Psalms  and  Hymns  in  current  and  reputable  use  in 
English  is  counted  by  thousands,  and  no  inconsiderable  portion  of 
these  have  decided  poetical  merit. 

Hymn  Writers.  —  The  principal  writers  of  Hymns  in  English  are 
Watts,  Doddridge,  Ken,  Charles  Wesley,  Dwight,  Newton,  Mont- 
goraeryj  Heber,  Mrs.  Steele,  Mrs.  Barbauld,  and  Jane  Taylor. 
Among  more  recent  hymnists  may  be  named  Faber,  Ray  Palmer, 
Bonar,  and  Charlotte  Elliott. 

Other  Kinds  of  Hymns.  —  The  word  Hymn  is  sometimes  applied  to 
compositions  of  a  more  extended  character,  and  not  intended  for 
religious  worship.  Thus  Spenser  has  written  four  hymns,  on  Love, 
Beauty,  Heavenly  Love,  and  Heavenly  Beauty,  averaging  nearly 
three  hundred  lines  each.  The  religious  odes  among  the  ancients 
also  were  usually  much  longer  than  those  which  we  now  use  in 
Christian  worship. 

2.  Heroic  Odes.  —  These  are  lyric  poems  celebrating  the  praises  of 
heroes,  and  are  mostly  occupied  with  martial  exploits^ 

The  odes  of  Pindar,  in  Greek,  are  considered  the  highest  speci- 
mens of  this  kind  of  composition.  "Alexander's  Feast,"  by  Dry- 
den,  is  the  grandest  Ode  in  the  English  language.  The  best  perhaps 
in  our  recent  literature  is  Lowell's  "Commemoration  Ode." 

3.  Moral  Odes, — These  include  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  being 
used  to  express  almost  every  kind  of  sentiment  suggested  by  friend- 
ship, humanity,  patriotism,  and  so  forth. 

Collins's  Ode  on  the  Passions  and  Gray's  Ode  to  Eton  College  are 
familiar  to  all  readers.  Collins  and  Gray  are  the  two  English  writers 
who  have  most  excelled  in  this  species  of  composition. 

4.  Amatory  Odes.  —  These,  more  generally  known  as  Love  Songs, 
are  numerous  in  all  literatures. 

The  most  successful  writers  of  this  kind  of  verse  among  the 
ancients  were  Anacreon  among  the  Greeks,  and  Horace  among  the 
Romans.  No  one  writer  in  English  stands  pre-eminent  in  this  depart- 
ment. Nearly  all  our  great  poets  have  written  successful  love  verses. 
Thomas  Moore  probably  has  contributed  more  largely  than  any  other 
writer  to  this  particular  branch  of  our  literature.  The  Songs  of 
Burns,  though  not  so  numerous  as  those  of  Moore,  are  less  artificial. 
and  show  greater  genius.     Nothing  but  the  Scottish  dialect,  in  whici 


258  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORIC. 

most  of  his  pieces  are  written,  and  which  is  a  great  drawback  to 
ordinary  readers,  prevents  Burns  from  standing  at  the  head  of  our 
lyric  poets. 

5.  Comic  Songs.  —  These  also  have  become  very  numerous.  Being 
intended  mainly  for  amusement,  they  are  often  written  with  great 
license  as  to  their  metrical  construction,  and  sometimes  with  still 
greater  license  in  regard  to  morals. 

Bacchanalian  Songs.  —  These,  as  the  name  imports,  are  songs  to 
be  sung  in  honor  of  Bacchus.  In  other  words,  they  are  drinking- 
songs.  They  are  subject  to  still  greater  irregularities  than  the  kind 
last  named.  Their  object  is  to  promote  good  fellowship  in  drinking, 
and  they  are  consequently  a  prolific  source  of  drunkenness. 

Bacchanalian  Songs  almost  always  partake  of  the  comic  charac- 
ter, and  not  unfrequently  are  amatory  also.  Indeed,  these  three 
kinds  of  song  last  named  are  closely  allied,  and  the  authors  who 
have  excelled  in  any  one  of  them  have  usually  excelled  in  all. 

Sonnets. -jr- The  Sonnet,  though  no  longer  used  in  song, 
comes  under  the  head  of  Lyric  poetry. 

The  Sonnet  was  first  cultivated  in  Italy,  and  it  has  there  achieved 
its  greatest  successes.  The  Sonnets  of  Petrarch  are  as  famous  as 
the  odes  of  Pindar,  and  show  as  high  an  order  of  genius.  The  Son- 
net was  first  introduced  into  the  English  by  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt,  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  From  that  time  to  the  present,  nearly  all 
our  poets  of  any  note  have  written  sonnets,  and  some  of  these  com- 
positions are  among  the  very  best  treasures  of  which  our  literature 
has  to  boast. 

IV.    ELEGIAC   POETRY. 

An  Elegy  is  a  poem,  usually  of  a  sad  and  mournful  kind, 
celebrating  the  virtues  of  some  one  deceased. 

Its  Form.  — Elegiac  poetry  is  rarely,  if  ever,  in  any  other  meas- 
ure than  the  iambic,  and  the  most  celebrated  elegies  known  to  our 
literature,  such  as  Milton's  Lycidas,  and  Gray's  Elegy  written  in  a 
Country  Church-Yard,  are  in  iambic  pentameter.  The  slow  and 
stately  movement  of  this  line  is  particularly  suited  to  the  purposes 
of  Elegy.  Tennyson's  In  Memoriam,  equally  celebrated  with  the 
two  poems  just  named,  is  in  iambic  tetrameter.  Shelley's  Adonais  is 
in  the  Spenserian  stanza. 


POETRY  —  DIDACTIC.  259 

An  Epitaph  is  a  very  short  Elegy,  intended  to  be  inscribed  on  a 
tomb  or  monumental  tablet. 


V.     PASTORAL  POETRY. 

Pastoral  Poetry  *  means  properly  that  which  celebrates 
shepherd  or  rustic  life. 

Among  the  Ancients.  —  The  early  pastoral  poets,  such  as  Theo- 
critus among  the  Greeks  and  Virgil  among  the  Latins,  described 
the  manners,  occupations,  amusements,  and  loves  of  shepherds  and 
shepherdesses,  and  these  descriptions  are  characterized  by  great 
simplicity  of  style,  suited  to  the  subject. 

Among  the  Moderns.  —  Modern  authors,  who  have  written  pas- 
toral poetry,  though  often  giving  to  their  characters  the  names  and 
occupations  of  rustics,  have  generally  used  this  guise  to  cover  well- 
bred  and  well-known  city  people.  Thus  Spenser,  in  the  Shepherds' 
Calendar,  speaks  throughout  of  country  lads  and  lasses,  tending  their 
flocks  and  cracking  their  rude  jokes,  but  he  means  by  them  himself 
and  his  fellow-courtiers  in  London.  The  term  Pastoral  is  now  ap- 
plied to  any  poem  which  describes  placid  country-life. 

Eclogues.  —  The  pastoral  poems  of  Virgil  were  called  by  him 
Eclogues,  and  this  term  has  been  much  used  for  modern  poems  of 
the  same  sort. 

Idyls.  —  Theocritus,  the  first  who  wrote  in  this  style,  called  his 
pieces  Idyls.  Hence  the  term  Idyllic,  as  applied  to  pastoral  poetry. 
Hence  also  the  title  "Idyls  of  the  King,"  applied  by  Tennyson  to  a 
collection  of  his  latest  poems,  though  they  have  little  of  the  character 
of  pastoral  poetry,  as  commonly  understood. 

VI.  DIDACTIC  POETRY. 

A  Didactic  Poem  is  one  which  aims  chiefly  to  give  in- 
struction. 

Its  Character.  -  The  poetry  of  this  kind,  though  useful,  is  not  in 
itself  of  80  high  an  order  as  the  others  which  have  been  named. 
Many  critics,  indeed,  deny  to  compositions  of  this  kind  the  character 
of  poetry. 

•  From  the  Latin  word  pastor,  a  shepherd. 


260  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

The  Objection. — If,  say  they,  it  is  of  the  very  essence  of  poetry 
that  it  aims  to  please,  why  should  we  assign  this  name  to  that  which 
aims  only  to  instruct  ?  It  may  be  good  verse,  but  it  is  not  poetry. 
Such  is  the  objection,  and  it  is  not  without  some  truth.  But  it  is  not 
the  whole  truth. 

The  Eeply.  —  The  compositions  now  under  consideration,  while 
they  aim  to  instruct,  and  aim  mainly  at  that,  aim  also  to  please. 
The  arguments  and  reasonings  which  they  contain  are  made  much 
more  effective  by  being  put  into  the  poetical  form.  Besides  this,  a 
great  poet  ought,  if  any  one,  to  know  what  is  poetry,  and  what  is 
not,  and  some  of  the  greatest  poets  that  the  world  has  known  have 
"written  pieces  in  verse  for  instruction  on  particular  topics,  and  have 
called  these  pieces  poems.  Virgil's  Georgics  is  a  treatise  on  agri- 
culture. Horace's  Art  of  Poetry,  and  Pope's  Essay  on  Criticism,  are 
treatises.  Yet  it  would  require  some  hardihood  to  say  that  they  are 
not  poems. 

Meditative  Poetry. —  Under  the  head  of  Didactic  poetry  may  very 
properly  be  included  not  only  that  which  aims  in  a  formal  manner 
to  instruct,  but  all  poetry  of  a  meditative  kind. 

Its  Abundance.  — The  poetry  of  this  sort  in  English  is  very  abun- 
dant, and  much  of  it  very  valuable.  We  could  ill  spare  from  Eng- 
lish literature  Bryant's  Thanatopsis,  Campbell's  Pleasures  of  Hope, 
Akenside's  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination,  Rogers's  Pleasures  of 
Memory,  Young's  Night  Thoughts,  Thomson's  Seasons,  Cowper's 
Task,  Pope's  Essay  on  Man,  and  a  host  of  other  poems  of  nearly 
equal  celebrity. 

Satire.  —  A  Satire  is  a  poem  intended  to  hold  up  the  follies  of  men 
to  ridicule.  It  aims  to  reform  men  by  appealing  to  their  sense  of 
shame.  Satire  is  properly  impersonal,  exposing  faults  in  general, 
rather  than  exposing  individuals. 

Lampoon. — A  Lampoon  attacks  individuals. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Prose  Composition. 

Prose  is  the  term  applied  to  all  composition  which  is  not 
in  verse.  It  means  the  ordinary,  straightforward  manner 
of  discourse,  in  distinction  from  the  inverted  forms  so  com- 
mon in  poetry. 

Prose  is  from  the  Latin  prosa,  contracted  from  prorsa,  and  that  from  proveraa, 
meaning  straightforward. 

The  chief  varieties  of  Prose  composition  are  Letters, 
Diaries,  News,  Editorials,  Reviews,  Essays,  Treatises, 
Travels,  History,  Fiction,  Discourses. 

I.    LETTERS. 

A  Letter  is  a  written  communication  addressed  by  the 
writer  to  some  other  person  or  persons. 

Subject  Important. — Comparatively  few  persons  are  required  to 
practise  any  of  the  other  varieties  of  composition  which  have  been 
named,  whether  prose  or  verse.  But  almost  every  one  has  occasioH 
to  write  letters,  and  the  difference  in  the  effect  produced  between 
a  letter  well  written  and  a  letter  badly  written,  is  as  great  aa  that 
between  good  and  bad  sermons,  or  between  good  and  bad  bread. 
Surely,  then,  the  subject  of  letter-writing  ought  not  to  be  omitted 
in  any  work  purporting  to  treat  of  Prose  Composition. 

Variety. — No  species  of  composition  admits  of  greater  variety. 
Letters  are  as  various  in  style  as  are  the  characters,  the  wants,  the 
occupations,  or  the  pleasures  of  men.     Sometimes  writers,  in  treat- 
ing of  literary  or  scientific  subjects,  cast  thwr  csseys  into  the  form 
23  261 


262  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

of  letters.     Such  letters,  however,  are  in  fact  treatises,  and  are  iub- 
ject  to  the  rules  for  that  kind  of  composition. 

Eeal  Letters.  —  Real  letters  are  such  as  grow  out  of  the  actual 
occasions  of  life,  and  are  addressed  by  one  to  another,  as  business, 
pleasure,  affection,  or  fancy  may  dictate.  Whether  a  letter  should 
be  free  and  easy,  or  elaborate,  in  its  style,  whether  it  should  be 
plain  or  ornate,  serious  or  joyous,  matter-of-fact  or  sentimental, 
will  depend  upon  the  occasion.  The  general  principles,  therefore, 
which  underlie  all  composition,  must  guide  the  writer  in  the  compo- 
sition of  the  body  or  substance  of  a  letter. 

Blair.  —  On  this  point,  the  following  observations  by  Blair  are  worthy  of  con- 
sideration. 

Correspondence.  —  Epistolary  writing  becomes  a  distinct  species  of  compo- 
sition, subject  to  the  cognizance  of  criticism,  only,  or  chiefly,  when  it  is  of  the  easy 
or  familiar  kind ;  when  it  is  conversation  carried  on  upon  paper,  between  two  friends 
at  a  distance.  Such  an  intercourse,  when  well  conducted,  may  be  rendered  very  agree- 
able to  readers  of  taste.  If  the  subject  of  the  letters  be  important,  they  will  be  more 
valuable.  Even  though  there  should  be  nothing  very  considerable  in  the  subject ; 
yet,  if  the  spirit  and  turn  of  the  correspondence  be  agreeable,  if  they  be  written  in 
a  sprightly  manner,  and  with  native  grace  and  ease,  they  may  still  be  entertaining ; 
more  especially  if  there  be  any  thing  to  interest  us,  in  the  character  of  those  who 
write  them. 

lietters  of  Digtinguislied  Persons.  —  Hence  the  curiosity  which  the 
public  has  always  shown  concerning  the  letters  of  eminent  persons.  We  expect 
in  them  to  discover  somewhat  of  their  real  character.  It  is  childish,  indeed,  to  expect 
that  in  letters  we  are  to  find  the  whole  heart  of  the  author  unveiled.  Concealment 
and  disguise  take  place,  more  or  less,  in  all  human  intercourse.  But  still,  as  letters 
from  one  friend  to  another  make  the  nearest  approach  to  conversation,  we  may  expect 
to  see  more  of  a  character  displayed  in  these  than  in  other  productions,  which  are 
studied  for  public  view.  We  please  ourselves  with  beholding  the  writer  in  a  situation 
which  allows  him  to  be  at  his  ease,  and  to  give  vent  occasionally  to  the  overflowiuga 
of  his  heart. 

AVhat  is  required  in  a  Letter.  —  Much,  therefore,  of  the  merit  and  the 
agreeableness  of  epistolary  writing,  will  depend  on  its  introducing  us  into  soma 
acquaintance  with  the  writer.  There,  if  anywhere,  we  look  for  the  man,  not  fbr  the 
author.  Its  first  and  fundamental  requisite  is,  to  be  natural  and  simple  ;  for  a  stiff 
and  labored  manner  is  as  bad  in  a  letter,  as  it  is  in  conversation.  This  does  not  banish 
sprightliness  and  wit.  Those  are  graceful  in  letters,  as  they  are  in  conversation;' 
when  they  flow  easily  and  without  being  studied ;  when  employed  so  as  to  season,  not 
to  cloy.  One  who,  either  in  conversation  or  in  letters,  affects  to  shine  and  sparkle 
always,  will  not  please  long.  The  style  of  letters  should  not  be  too  highly  polished  ; 
it  ought  to  be  neat  and  correct,  but  no  more.  All  nicety  about  words  betrays  study  ; 
and  hence  miisical  periods,  and  appearances  of  number  and  harmony  in  arrangement, 
should  be  carefully  avoided  in  letters. 

Tl»e  Best  Letters  are  commonly  such  as  the  authors  have  written  with  most 
facility.    What  the  heart  or  iiaagiuation  dictates,  always  flows  readily;  but  whva 


PROSE    COMPOSITION  —  LETTERS.  263 

there  ia  no  subject  to  warm  or  interest  these,  constraint  appears ;  and  hence,  those 
letters  of  more  compliment,  congratulation,  or  affected  condolence,  which  have  cost 
the  authors  most  labor  in  composing,  and  which,  for  that  reason,  they  perhaps  con- 
sider as  their  masterpieces,  never  fail  of  being  the  most  disagreeable  and  insipid  to 
the  readers. 

Carelessness.  —  It  ought,  at  the  same  time,  to  be  remembered,  that  the  ease 
and  simplicity  which  I  have  recommended  in  epistolary  correspondence,  are  not  to  be 
understood  as  importing  entire  carelessness.  In  writing  to  the  mos*;  intimate  friend, 
a  certain  degree  of  attention,  both  to  the  subject  and  the  style,  is  requisite  and  becom- 
ing. It  is  no  more  than  we  owe  both  to  ourselves  and  to  the  friend  with  whom  we 
correspond.  A  slovenly  and  negligent  manner  of  writing  ia  a  disobliging  mark  of 
want  of  respect. 

Special  Directions.  — All  that  needs  to  be  said  in  the  way  of  spe- 
cial directions  refers  to  the  form  of  a  letter.  Custom  has  prescribed 
certain  forms  for  this  species  of  composition,  and  these  forms  for 
the  most  part  are  founded  either  in  practical  convenience  or  in 
social  propriety. 

The  Form.  —  The  points  in  the  form  of  a  letter  requiring 
attention  are  the  Heading,  the  Address,  the  Subscription, 
and  the  Superscription. 

1.  The  Heading. 
The  first  thing  to  be  observed  in  writing  a  letter  is  the 
date  or  heading.      This  includes  two  points,  namely,  the 
place  where,  and  the  time  when,  the  letter  is  written. 

Both  these  points  require  attention  : 

1.  The  Place. — In  beginning  a  letter,  we  put,  first  of  all,  at  the 
top  of  the  page,  the  place  at  which  the  letter  purports  to  be  written. 
In  this  heading,  all  those  particulars  should  be  given  which  will  be 
needed  for  addressing  the  reply. 

Street  and  Niimber.  —  If  the  letter  comes  from  a  city,  it  is  well  for  the 
heading  to  give  the  street  and  number,  as  well  as  the  name  of  the  city.  These  items 
are  usually  arranged  in  the  following  order:  The  number  of  the  house,  the  name  of 
the  street,  the  name  of  the  city ;  thus,  1828,  Pine  Street,  Philadelphia. 

State.  —  If  the  city  is  a  very  large  one,  like  New  York  or  Philadelphia,  there  will 
be  no  necessity  for  adding  the  name  of  the  State.  But  in  all  ordinary  cases  the  name 
of  the  State  should  be  added  ;  thus,  Easton,  Pennsylvania. 

Contractions.  — If  the  name  of  the  State  is  contracted,  care  should  be  taken 
to  make  the  contraction  in  such  a  way  that  what  is  meant  for  one  State  cannot  b« 


264  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

mistaken  for  another ;  thus,  Md.  (Maryland)  and  Me.  (Maine),  Vt.  (Vermont)  and  Va. 
(Virginia),  in  careless  manuscript,  arc  often  confounded.  New  York  and  New  Jersey 
should  always  be  written  out  in  full.  N.  Y.  and  N.  J.  are  so  much  alike  in  manu- 
script that  hundreds  of  letters  every  year  go  to  Trenton,  New  York,  that  are  meant 
for  Trenton,  New  Jersey. 

County.  —  If  the  town  is  quite  small,  and  especially  if  it  is  at  some  distance 
from  the  place  to  which  the  letter  is  going,  the  name  of  the  County  should  be  added. 
Tliis  enables  one's  correspondent  to  address  his  reply  in  such  a  way  as  almost  to 
insure  its  safe  delivery.  Sometimes  a  letter  is  written  from  a  place  where  there  is  no 
post-office, — some  small  outlying  settlement  near  the  post-town.  In  such  a  case,  if 
the  writer  wishes  to  designate  this  small  place,  he  should  be  careful  to  add  the  post- 
town  also ;  thus,  Dutch  Neck,  near  Bridgeton,  Cumberland  County,  New  Jersey. 

Eeason  for  Particularity.  — A  correspondent,  in  replying  to  a  let- 
ter, naturally  casts  his  eye  to  the  heading  to  see  how  his  reply  shall 
be  addressed.  In  the  forms  given  above  he  has  all  the  particulars 
required  for  addressing  this  part  of  his  envelope,  and  in  exactly  the 
order  needed. 

Why  Important.  —  These  are  small  matters  apparently,  and  it  may 
seem  like  trifling  to  dwell  upon  them,  but  the  amount  of  trouble  and 
loss  occasioned  by  inattention  to  them  is  inconceivable  by  those  not 
familiar  with  the  subject. 

2.  The  Time. — It  is  important  in  every  kind  of  letter,  but  espe- 
cially in  business  letters,  to  denote  the  time  of  writing,  that  is,  to 
register  the  month,  the  day  of  the  month,  and  the  year.  This  date 
is  the  second  thing  to  be  given.  It  likewise  is  put  at  the  top  of  the 
page,  and  immediately  after  the  name  of  the  place,  and  the  particu- 
lar* are  given  in  the  order  just  named ;  thus,  January   28,  1870. 

Form  of  Heading.  —  Whether  the  heading  should  all  be  in  one  line, 
or  whether  it  should  be  broken  into  two  lines,  the  words  expressing 
the  place  being  in  one  line,  and  those  expressing  the  time  in  another, 
is  a  mere  matter  of  fancy.     It  is,  in  fact,  a  question  of  penmanship. 

If  the  heading  is  long,  it  is  often  broken  into  two  lines ;  if  short,  it  is  generally 
given  in  one :  thus, 

Bursonville,  Bucks  Co.,  Penna., 
March  24,  1870. 

Easton,  Maryland,  April  1,  1870. 

Date  at  the  Bottom.  —  Some  letter-writers  have  a  fancy  for  put- 
ting the  time  and  place  at  the  bottom  of  the  letter  instead  of  the  top, 
but  the  custom  is  not  to  be  recommended.  The  practical  conveni- 
ences of  the  ordinary  method  are  so  great  that  every  one  engaged 
in  buiin«ss  ought  to  feel  bound  to  conform  to  it. 


PROSE    COMPOSITION — LETTERS.  265 


2.  The  Address. 
The  Military  Form.  —  In  a  letter  addressed  by  one  military  man 
to  another,  an  exact  form  is- prescribed  by  law.  The  person  written 
to  is  addressed  at  the  beginning  of  the  letter  simply  by  his  title,  as 
General,  Captain,  Corporal,  Private,  or  whatever  it  may  be,  and 
without  his  name.  Then,  at  the  end  of  the  letter,  on  the  line  below 
the  signature  of  the  writer,  the  name  of  the  person  addressed  is 
given,  with  his  full  official  title,  and  his  location,  just  as  it  is  to  be  on 
the  envelope :  thus, 

Headquarters,  Military  Division  op  thb  Mississippi, 
In  the  Field,  Manchester,  Va.,  May  9, 1865. 
Qkkiral  :  I  have  joined  my  army  at  Manchester,  opposite  Richmond,  and  await 
your  orders.  General  "Wilson  telegraphs,  through  General  Schofield,  for  hay  and 
forage  for  20,000  animals,  to  be  sent  up  the  Savannah  River  to  Augusta.  Under 
Secretary  Stanton's  newspaper  orders,  taking  Wilson  substantially  from  my  com- 
mand, I  wish  you  would  give  the  orders  necessary  for  the  case. 

W.  T.  Sherman, 
Major-Qeneral  Commanding. 
Lieut.-General  U.  S.  Grant, 

Commander-in-Chief, 

Washington  City, 

Ordinary  Letters.  —  This  form,  prescribed  in  the  military 
service,  is  a  good  basis  for  the  rules  which  should  guide  us 
in  ordinary  letters. 

The  Beginning. — We  begin  our  letters  with  Sir,  Dear  Sir,  My 
Dear  Sir,  Rev.  Sir,  My  Dear  Dr.  Smith,  My  Dear  Lizzie,  &c.,  &c., 
according  to  the  relations  of  respect,  intimacy,  or  affection  existing 
between  us  and  the  one  addressed.  Between  relatives  and  in-timate 
friends  these  addresses  may  properly  enough  often  assume  a  very 
familiar  style,  and  may  afford  the  opportunity  for  expressing  tender 
affection  and  endearment,  as  well  as  for  playfulness  and  fun. 

The  Close.  —  At  the  close  of  the  letter,  it  is  well,  in  all  ordinary 
cases,  to  give  the  proper  address  with  some  formality.  The  address 
thus  given  at  the  bottom  should  be  the  same  that  is  placed  on  the 
envelope.  It  is  a  safeguard  against  the  letter  going  at  any  time  by 
mistake  into  the  wrong  hands.  The  envelope  is  often  lost  or  de- 
stroyed. The  letter,  therefore,  should  be  self-identifying  indepen- 
dently of  the  envelope. 

Identification  Important. — There  maybe  twenty  thousand  "Liz- 
zies "  in  the  Directory,  but  there  is  only  one  "  My  Dear  Lizzie  "  to 
28* 


266  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

the  writer,  and  that  is  *'  Miss  Elizabeth  Smith,  423 Street, 

Philadelphia."  Where  there  is  in  the  letter  nothing  to  identify 
clearly  both  the  writer  and  the  one  written  to,  there  is  an  appear- 
ance of  something  anonymous  and  clandestine.  A  proper  respect, 
therefore,  for  the  person  addressed,  particularly  if  the  person  is  a 
lady,  requires  the  formal  recognition  implied  by  giving  in  full,  at 
the  close  of  the  letter,  the  proper  name  and  address,  whatever  terms 
of  badinage  or  of  endearment  may  have  preceded  it.  Indeed,  the 
more  free  and  easy  the  first  address  and  the  body  of  the  letter  are, 
the  more  propriety  there  is  in  this  formal  recognition  and  identifi- 
cation at  the  close. 

Business  Letters. — In  writing  business  letters,  the  mili- 
tary rule  above  described  is  often  reversed,  the  full  address 
being  placed  at  the  beginning,  instead  of  at  the  end ;  thus, 

Messrs.  Robert  Carter  &  Brothers, 

Broadway,  New  York ; 
Dear  Sirs : 

This  method  has  many  advantages,  and  in  letters  on  business  is  to 
be  commended.  In  letters  of  courtesy  or  affection,  the  other  method 
is  preferable. 

3.  The  Suhscription. 
In  closing  a  letter,  the  writer  subscribes  his  name  with 
more  or  less  fulness,  and  in  such  terms  of  respect  or  affec- 
tion as  the  circumstances  may  seem  to  warrant. 

Terms  vary.  —  These  terms,  like  those  of  the  address,  vary  of 
course  according  to  the  varying  relations  of  the  parties,  so  that  no 
general  rule  fey:  them  can  be  given.  Business  letters  very  commonly 
close  with  **Your  obedient  servant,"  or,  if  it  be  a  firm,  *' Your  obe- 
dient servants." 

Initials.  — Many  persons,  in  subscribing  their  name,  have  a  fancy 
for  giving  only  the  initials  of  their  first,  or  given  name  ;  thus,  R. 
E.  Jones,  J.  M.  Smith.  No  one  can  determine  from  these  signatures 
whether  the  writer  is  Reuben  or  Rebecca,  James  or  Juliet,  and  the 
person  addressed,  who  is  ofteiJ  a  stranger,  is  at  a  loss  whether  to 
send  his  reply  to  Mr.  Jones  or  Miss  Jones,  to  Mr.  Smith  or  Miss 
Smith. 

Sex.  —  in  signing  one's  name  to  a  letter,  or  to  any  other  document,  it 


PROBE    COMPOSITION  —  LETTERS.  267 

is  advisable  that  the  name  should  always  be  so  written  as  to  show 
whether  the  writer  is  a  man  or  a  woman.  This  is  particularly  im- 
portant in  addressing  a  letter  to  a  stranger. 

Married  Women  and  Widows.  —  A  married  woman  or  a  widow,  in 
writing  to  a  stranger,  should  also  prefix  Mrs.  to  her  name.  A 
married  woman  generally  gives,  with  the  Mrs.,  the  first  name  of  her 
husband,  so  long  as  he  lives,  but  drops  it  after  his  death  ;  thus, 
Yours  truly,  Mrs.  William  Southcote;  Yours  truly,  Mrs.  Joanna 
Southcote.  Supposing  both  these  to  be  written  by  the  same  person, 
we  infer  from  the  former  that  the  writer  is  Mr.  Southcote's  wife ; 
from  the  latter,  that  she  is  his  widow. 

Terms  of  Endearment. — The  particular  terms  of  endearment  used 
in  the  subscription  to  letters  of  love  and  friendship,  will  vary,  of 
course,  with  the  fancy  of  the  writers.  In  general  it  may  be  remarked, 
however,  that  "loving"  is  a  better  word  than  "affectionate,"  espe- 
cially between  kin. 

Arrangement. — The  arrangement  of  the  subscription,  as  of  the 
address  and  the  heading,  is  a  matter  of  penmanship  rather  than  of 
composition.  Still,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  observe  that  the  terms  of 
respect  or  affection  usually  occupy  a  line  by  themselves,  sometimes 
two  lines,  and  the  name  of  the  writer  occupies  another  line ;  thus, 

Very  respectfully, 

Your  obedient  servant, 

John  G.  Smith. 

Examples.  — The  following  addresses  and  subscriptions  have  been 
copied  from  writers  of  good  standing,  and  may  serve  as  models, 
according  to  circumstances : 

My  Dear  Mr.  Jebb, 


My  Dear  Sir, 


Most  truly  yours, 

Alexander  E^ox. 


AfiFectionately  yours, 

John  M.  Mason. 


My  Dear  God-child,  ■ 


Your  unseen  God-father  and  friend, 

Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge. 


My  Dear  Sir  William, 

Yours  very  sincerely, 

Hannah  More. 

My  Dear  Moore, 

Yours  ever,  and  most  aflfectionately, 

Byroa. 


268  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

My  Dearest  Loto, 

Your  affectionate  husband, 

Robert  Bums. 

4.  The  Superscription. 
By  the  Superscription  of  a  letter  is  meant  the  address 
which  is  written  upon  the  envelope. 

Why  Impertant.  — Some  care  in  this  respect  is  needed,  both  be- 
cause correctness  in  the  superscription  is  the  chief  means  for  secur- 
ing the  safe  delivery  of  the  letter,  and  because  any  want  of  propriety 
in  the  superscription  is  sure  to  attract  criticism.  What  is  inside  of 
one's  letter  may  meet  the  eye  of  only  the  most  indulgent  friendship, 
and  any  little  inelegance  or  carelessness  is  sure  to  be  forgiven.  But 
the  outside  usually  undergoes  the  scrutiny  of  many,  and  it  is  but  a 
poor  compliment  to  your  friend,  that  what  he  receives  from  you 
through  the  hands  of  third  parties  should  give  them  the  impression 
that  his  correspondent  is  an  ignoramus  or  a  boor. 

Penmanship,  —  The  superscription  of  a  letter,  so  far  as  the  pen- 
manship goes,  should  be  written  with  entire  distinctness  and  legi- 
bility, with  neatness  and  care,  and  with  some  attention  to  elegance, 
but  never  with  ornamental  flourishes. 

Scrupulous  Exactness.  —  The  superscription  should  be  written  with 
scrupulous  verbal  exactness,  and  attention  to  conventional  propriety. 

The  Superscription  consists  of  three  parts,  the  Name  of 
the  person  addressed,  the  Title,  and  the  Residence. 

1.  The  Name.  —  Intimate  friends  often  have  familiar  pet  names 
for  each  other,  nicknames,  which  they  use  in  the  free  intercourse  of 
friendship.  These  may  be  allowable  inside  of  the  letter,  but  never 
outside.  The  name  on  the  outside  should  be  written  with  formal 
propriety  and  correctness,  as  it  would  be  expected  to  be  written  by 
an  entire  stranger. 

2.  The  Title.  —  The  greatest  difficulty  in  addressing  a  letter  is  to 
know  what  title  to  give. 

Common  Titles.  — Every  one  now-a-dny«,  except  among  the  Friends,  has 
■oine  title.  A  young  lad  usually  has  the  prefix  Master,  and  any  unmarried  woman  the 
prefix  Miss.  EvBry  married  woman  or  widow  has  the  prefix  Mrs.,  and  every  man 
who  has  no  higher  title  is  Mr. 

Professional  Titles.  — Medical  men  have  the  title  M.  D.  aft«r  their  name, 


PROSE    COMPOSITION — LETTERS.  269 

and  legal  gentlemen  that  of  Esquire.*  Others,  who  belong  to  neither  of  these  pro- 
fessions, but  who  are  graduates  of  Colleges,  have  some  academic  title  after  their 
names,  as  A.  M.  or  Ph.  D.,  Ac.  In  such  cases  the  Mr.  before  the  name  should  be 
dropped.  It  would  be  ridiculous  to  write  Mr.  John  Peters,  Esq.,  Mr.  Thomas  Dobba, 
M.  D.    In  like  manner,  it  is  absurd  to  write  John  Bates,  A.  M.,  D.  D. 

Hlglier  and.  liOTrer  Titles.  —  The  higher  title  presupposes  the  lower. 
When  one  reaches  D.  D.,  or  LL.  D.,  he  drops  his  A.  B.  or  his  A.  M.  It  is  customary, 
however,  to  retain  both  the  two  higher  titles,  D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  if  one  happens  to  reach 
them  both,  and  the  LL.  D.  in  such  a  case  is  written  last,  as  James  McCosh,  D.  D., 
LL.  D.,  not  James  McCosh,  LL.  D.,  D.  D. 

Clergymen. — Clergymen  always  have  the  prefix  Rev.,  and  Bishops  that  of 
Rt,  Rev.,  and  this  is  usually  retained  even  v.here  they  have  D.  D.,  or  some  other  hon- 
orary title,  after  their  name,  as  Rev.  John  Maclean,  D.  D.,  LL.  D. 

Honorables. — Judges,  Members  of  Congress,  and  some  other  high  officers  of 
Government,  have  the  prefix  Honorable.  This  title  prefixed  to  a  name  extinguishes 
the  title  Esquire  after  it,  but  not  any  title  of  special  honor.  It  would  not  be  right  to 
say  Hon.  Joel  Jones,  Esq.,  but  one  may  with  entire  propriety  say  Hon.  Joel  Jones, 
LL.  D. 

Full  Name. — Where  an  honorary  prefix  such  as  Rev.  or  Hon.  is  used,  it  is 
more  respectful  to  give  the  full  name,  as  R«v.  William  A.  Butler,  not  Rev.  Mr.  Butler; 
Hon.  Salmon  P.  Chase,  not  Hon.  Judge  Chase. 

Governors.  —  The  Governor  of  a  State  is  usually  addressed  as  His  Excellency, 
and  this  is  written  in  a  separate  line,  with  the  full  name  in  a  second  line,  and  tha 
official  title  on  a  third  line ;  thus, 
His  Excellency, 

James  Pollock,  LL.  D., 

Governor  of  Pennsylvania. 
Etiquette  in  Washington  has  prescribed  the  following  form,  in  addressing   tha 
President  of  the  United  States :  On  the  outside  of  the  letter. 

To  the  President, 

Executive  Mansion, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

Inside :  "  Mr.  President,  I  have  the  honor,"  &c.  These  forms  are  the  strict  «tiquette. 
Not  one  word  more  or  less  is  necessary.  To  write  "  To  the  President  of  the  United 
States,"  would  be  surplusage. 

3.  The  Residence. — In  writing  upon  the  enyelope  of  a  letter  the 
residence  of  the  person  addressed,  the  same  general  rules  should  be 
observed  which  have  already  been  given  for  writing  one's  own  resi- 
dence at  the  top  of  the  letter. 

*  There  is  a  ridiculous  fashion  among  some  ill-informed  persons  of  appending  Esq. 
to  the  name  of  every  one  who  has  no  other  title.  It  may  be  proper  somstimes  to  ad- 
dress in  this  way  a  man  somewhat  advanced  in  years  and  of  high  social  standing, 
who  happens  to  have  no  special  official  deagnation  ;  but  to  apply  the  title,  as  is  often 
done,  to  boys  fresh  from  school,  to  clerksi^d  salesmen  in  stores,  and  to  common  day- 
laborers,  is  a  discourteous  and  uncivil  mockery, 

18 


270  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Name  of  the  State.  — The  only  additional  rule  needed  is  that  the 
name  of  the  State  should  be  written  out  in  full,  especially  when  the 
letter  is  to  go  to  some  other  State  than  that  in  which  it  is  written. 

The  Reason.  —  There  are  so  many  towns  having  the  same  name,  that  in  th« 
haste  of  post-office  business  a  letter  is  often  sent  to  two  or  three  different  places 
before  it  roaches  the  right  one,  and  sometimes  it  is  lost  altogether.  But  there  are 
never  two  post-offices  of  the  same  name  in  the  same  State,  and  the  postmasters  are 
always  familiar  with  the  location  of  all  the  offices  in  their  own  State.  The  name  of 
the  State  being  written  in  full,  in  a  clear,  legible  hand,  on  the  face  of  the  letter,  it  is 
almost  sure  to  go  to  the  right  State,  and  being  once  in  the  State,  it  is  equally  sure  of 
reaching  the  right  office,  and  by  the  most  direct  route.* 

Arrangement  of  the  Items.  — It  is  proper  to  observe,  also,  that  in 
writing  the  residence  on  the  envelope,  instead  of  putting  it  all  in 
one  line,as  is  done  at  the  head  of  a  letter,  each  item  of  the  residence 
forms  a  separate  line ;  thus, 

Bridgeton, 

Cumberland  County, 

New  Jersey. 

315  Green  St., 

Trenton, 

New  Jersey. 

Where  to  put  the  Name.  —  The  name  and  title  should  occupy  the 
central  portion  of  the  envelope.  If  they  are  placed  higher  up  than 
the  middle,  the  appearance  is  awkward,  and  besides,  a  clear  space 
above  is  needed  for  the  postmark  and  stamp.  If  the  name  is  written 
much  below  the  middle,  as  young  misses  have  an  affected  way  of 
doing,  it  does  not  leave  room  below  for  writing  the  residence  with- 
out unsightly  crowding.  It  is  better,  therefore,  both  for  appearance, 
and  for  practical  convenience,  to  let  the  name  and  title  occupy  a  line 
that  is  just  about  central  between  the  top  of  the  envelope  and  the 
bottom.  Nor  should  the  name  be  crowded  oflF  to  the  extreme  right  of 
the  envelope,  as  inexperienced  persons  are  apt  to  place  it,  but  it  should 
be  placed  about  centrally  between  the  two  ends.  The  name  stands 
out  more  distinctly  to  the  eye,  and  it  gives  a  more  symmetrical 
appearance  to  the  whole,  if  there  is  a  clear  space  left  at  each  end. 

•  At  a  rritioal  niomont  in  .\merican  affairs,  (the  time  of  "John  Brown's  raid"  at 
Harper's  Ferry,)  Oovrrnor  Wise,  of  Virginia,  wrote  an  important  letter  to  Governor 
Curtin,  of  Pennsylvania.  The  letter  was  addressed  to  "  Ilarrisburg,  Pa."  The  country 
postmaster,  being  naturally  more  familiar  with  the  towns  in  his  own  State  than  with 
those  farther  off,  and  mistaking  Pa.  for  Va.,  mailed  the  letter  to  IIarri8[onjburg, 
Virginia,  and  before  the  mistake  was  discovered,  the  rapid  march  of  events  had  mad* 
the  letter  too  late. 


PROSE    COMPOSITION  —  DIARIES.  271 

II.     DIARIES. 

A  Diary,  as  the  name  imports,  is  a  daily  record. 

Subjects,  —  The  subjects  recorded  vary,  of  course,  with  the  agOr 
sex,  occupation,  and  character  of  the  diarist.  It  is  a  form  of  com- 
position more  used  perhaps  than  any  other  for  recording  religiouc 
experience.  Travellers  record  thus  their  daily  adventures  and 
observations.  Students,  men  of  business,  men  of  pleasure  even,  are 
wont  to  write  down  from  day  to  day  things  which  interest  them,  or 
which  they  desire  particularly  to  remember. 

Essential  Character.  —  A  Diary  is  the  least  exact  and  formal  of  all 
kinds  of  composition.  The  primary  and  governing  idea  which  should 
control  the  writer  in  its  formation  is,  that  its  pages  are  meant  for 
his  own  eye  only.  He  writes  an  entry  to-day  in  order  that,  some 
years  hence,  when  memory  begins  to  fail,  he  may  see  exactly  what 
to-day's  thoughts  or  experiences  were.  It  is  a  record  made  for  the 
information  of  one's  future  self.  The  first  quality,  therefore,  in 
such  a  record,  is  that  it  be  absolutely  honest. 

Style.  — Embellishments  and  figures  of  rhetoric  are  utterly  out  of 
place  in  a  diary.  It  is  not  necessary,  indeed,  to  the  truthfulness  of 
such  a  record,  as  some  seem  to  imagine,  that  it  be  written  in  defiance 
of  the  laws  of  grammar.  On  the  contrary,  some  attention  to  gram- 
matical and  verbal  accuracy  shows  only  a  proper  self-respect.  But 
studied  elegance,  and  what  are  called  the  graces  of  style,  show  that 
the  whole  thing  is  a  sham,  and  that  the  writer  is  not  making  what 
he  is  pretending  to  make,  a  private  record  for  his  own  future  infor- 
mation, but  is  really  writing  for  efiFect  upon  the  minds  of  other 
people. 

Dates.  —  It  is  essential  to  the  honesty  and  truthfulness  of  a  diary 
that  the  date  of  an  entry  should  be  that  on  which  the  entry  is 
actually  made.  Inexperienced  persons,  in  keeping  a  diary,  some- 
times omit  making  any  record  for  several  days,  and  then,  on  some  day 
when  they  have  leisure  or  inclination,  make  one  job  of  it,  and  fill  up 
the  missing  days  from  memory.  This  is  to  make  the  whole  record 
valueless,  either  for  themselves  or  for  any  one  else. 

Blank  Days.  —  If,  on  any  particular  day,  no  record  is  made,  let 
the  day  stand  blank.  Such  blanks  are  no  blemish  to  a  diary  ;  the 
best  diaries  often  have  them.  In  making  the  record  of  a  particular 
day,  the  writer  may,  if  he  chooses,  register  his  recollections  of  what 


272  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORIC. 

took  place  on  previous  days,  but  let  them  be  entered  as  recollections. 
The  inexorable  rule  for  a  diary,  from  which  there  should  be  no 
exception,  is  that  each  entry  have  a  date,  and  that  the  date  mark 
truthfully  the  time  of  the  writing. 

The  Place.  —  Persons  who  keep  a  diary  will  likewise  find  it  of 
great  value  to  themselves  to  register  the  place  where,  as  well  as 
the  time  when,  each  entry  is  made.  Accuracy  and  particularity  in 
regard  to  facts  are  indeed  the  essential  points  in  the  composition  of 
a  diary. 

III.    NE^^^s. 

Next  to  writing  letters,  there  is,  in  modern  times,  no 
species  of  composition  of  which  so  much  is  done  as  News 
writing. 

Amount.  —  The  innumerable  items  which  fill  the  news  columns 
of  the  daily  and  weekly  papers  are  enormous  in  amount,  and  con- 
stitute the  chief  reading  of  the  public  —  the  daily  bread  of  our  lit- 
erary life. 

Literary  Character. — The  literature  of  the  news  columns  is  not, 
perhaps,  of  a  very  high  character  ;  yet  that  it  is  a  part  of  the  litera- 
ture of  the  day  cannot  well  be  denied,  and  the  rules  which  should 
govern  it  ought  not  to  be  entirely  ignored  in  any  work  professing  to 
treat  of  the  various  kinds  of  composition  in  actual  use. 

The  True  Medium.  —  News  items  are  for  the  most  part  written  in 
haste.  The  writers  have  not  time  to  correct  and  prune  their  com- 
position as  other  writers  have.  Personally,  therefore,  they  are  not 
held  to  as  strict  an  account  as  other  writers  are,  for  general  accuracy 
of  diction  and  style.  Yet  every  reader  is  sensible  of  the  difference 
between  a  paragraph  of  news  correctly  written  and  one  incorrectly 
written,  and  by  the  exercise  of  only  a  moderate  degree  of  attention, 
the  writers  of  these  paragraphs  could  certainly  avoid  most  of  the 
glaring  errors  which  now  mar  their  work. 

Things  to  be  Aimed  at.  — The  chief  excellencies  of  style  to  be  cul- 
tivated by  the  writer  of  news  are  accuracy,  condensation,  and  perspi- 
cuity. The  higher  graces  of  style,  such  as  those  growing  out  of  the 
use  of  rhetorical  figures,  lie  in  a  different  plane.  The  news  writer 
has  not  the  leisure  for  such  ornaments,  nor,  if  he  had,  would  their 
use  be  in  accordance  with  good  taste.     What  the  reader  requires  of 


PROSE    COMPOSITION  —  NEWS.  273 

him  is  Simply  a  statement  of  facts,  and  this  statement  should  aim  at 
the  three  qualities  just  named. 

1.  Accuracy. —  By  this  I  do  not  here  refer  to  the  truth  of 
the  facts  stated.  That  is  a  question  of  morals,  not  of  style. 
"What  I  mean  is  that  the  language  should  be  accurate ;  that 
it  should  convey  the  meaning  which  the  writer  intends.     • 

Sources  of  Mistake.  —  News  writers  err  in  this  respect  partly  from 
an  inaccurate  use  of  words,  and  partly  from  an  inaccurate  construc- 
tion of  sentences.     Thus : 

In  reporting  a  man's  death,  if  the  newsman  happens  to  be  one  of  those  ambitions 
of  fine  writing,  he  will  tell  us  of  the  man's  "  demise,"  which  is  something  quite  dif- 
ferent from  what  he  intended. 

Another  reporter,  who  is  careless  in  construction,  speaks  of  "  inventing  a  ballot- 
box  arrangement  which  cannot  be  stuffed,"  though  how  an  arrangement  is  to  be 
Btufifed  is  something  of  a  mystery. 

Another  tells  us  of  "  a  mad  dog  which  was  killed  after  several  other  dogs  had  been 
bitten  by  Eli  Beck."  He  meant  to  say  that  the  dog  was  killed  by  Eli  Beck.  What 
he  does  say  is  that  the  other  dogs  were  bitten  by  that  gentleman. 

"  The  Military  Committee  did  not  report  against  Mr.  B.,  of  Tennessee,  for  selling 
his  cadetship  to-day."  The  reporter  meant  to  say,  "  The  Committee  did  not  report 
to-day." 

The  portions  of  rhetoric  which  are  particularly  important  for  cor- 
recting inaccuracies  of  this  kind  are  the  chapters  on  Diction  and 
Sentences. 

2.  Condensation.  —  By  this  it  is  not  meant  that  the  news 
writer  should  suppress  the  particulars  which  give  body  and 
substance  to  a  statement  of  facts.  These  particulars  are 
usually  exactly  what  the  reader  wants;  and  the  best  re- 
porter, in  any  case  of  special  interest,  is  generally  the  one 
who  can  gather  and  give  these  particulars  with  the  greatest 
minuteness. 

What  is  Meant.  —  The  condensation  required  of  the  reporter  re- 
fers to  the  number  of  words  used  in  expressing  any  particular  item 
of  information.  An  expert  will  express  the  item  fully  in  about  half 
the  number  of  words  used  by  a  bungler,  and  the  report  will  increase 
in  vividness  and  sparkle  in  consequence  of  this  condensation.  The 
unnecessary  expletives  with  which  a  news  paragraph  is  so  often 
24    • 


274  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

swelled  out  into  forbidding  proportions  originate  in  bad  taste  and 
conceit.  The  writers  pelt  the  public  with  inflated  bladders,  when 
they  should  use  solid  shot, 

A  Safe  Rule.  —  A  beginner  in  this  species  of  composition  will  find 
it  a  safe  rule,  after  having  written  a  paragraph,  to  go  over  it  and 
strike  out  on  an  average  about  one-half  the  words.  Any  one  who 
has  not  given  the  subject  some  attention  will  be  surprised  at  the 
skill  in  condensation  acquired  by  some  of  the  newspaper  reporters, 
as  well  as  at  the  want  of  skill  manifested  by  others. 

3.  Perspicuity.  —  People  read  news  in  haste;  the  most 
imperative  demand  of  the  writer,  therefore,  is  clearness. 
The  meaning  should  be  so  plain  that  "he  may  run  that 
readeth  it." 

Different  from  other  Beading.  —  There  are  times,  indeed,  when  men 
find  pleasure  in  solving  the  mystery  of  some  hard  sentence  in  Latin  or 
Greek,  or  in  finding  out  the  meaning,  if  there  is  any,  in  some  orphic 
saying  of  Emerson.  But  no  one  is  ever  in  this  mood  over  his  morn- 
ing newspaper.  What  it  has  to  tell  us  in  the  way  of  news  must  be 
told  in  the  clearest  and  most  straightforward  manner. 

How  Obtained.  — This  clearness  is  to  be  obtained  chiefly  by  skill 
in  the  construction  of  sentences.  As  this  topic  has  been  fully 
treated  elsewhere,  the  reader  is  referred  for  further  information  to 
the  chapter  on  that  subject. 

A  Serious  Fault.  —  The  most  serious  fault  of  style  among  news 
writers,  at  the  present  day,  is  their  propensity  to  indulge  in  the  use 
of  slang  words  and  phrases.  This  mistake  of  slang  for  wit  is  a  sore 
evil.  It  may  not  perhaps  lead  to  a  deterioration  of  the  language,  as 
many  fear ;  for  the  fault  is  too  glaring  and  offensive  to  lead  to  general 
imitation.  But  it  is  a  serious  drawback  to  the  pleasure  with  which 
one  opens  his  paper  for  information  in  regard  to  the  news  of  the 
day.  Slang  is  next  door  to  ribaldry,  and  neither  of  them  is  pleasant 
company  at  the  breakfast  table. 

IV.     EDITORIALS. 

In  the  arrangement  of  a  modern  newspaper  —  and  the 
same  is  true  to  some  extent  in  magazines  —  a  portion  of  the 
space  is  reserved  for  the  expression  of  the  opinions  of  tho 


PROSE    COMPOSITION  —  EDITORIALS.      275 

editor  or  editors,  on  the  current  topics  of  the  day.  The 
paragraphs  thus  written  are  one  of  the  peculiar  products  of 
modern  times,  and  form  a  noticeable  species  of  prose  com- 
position. 

Order  of  Composition.  —  The  style  suited  for  the  editorial  columns 
is  not  only  of  a  high  order  of  composition,  but  is  one  peculiar  to 
itself.  A  first-class  editorial  admits,  indeed,  of  almost  every  grace 
and  excellence  of  style  known  to  rhetoric.  But  one  may  have  all 
these  excellencies,  may  be  a  first-class  writer  in  many  other  depart- 
ments of  literature,  and  yet  not  succeed  as  a  writer  of  editorials. 

Not  Impersonal  Truth.  —  An  editorial  is  not  an  essay,  or  a  disser- 
tation ;  not  a  mere  tissue  of  abstract,  impersonal  truths.  On  the 
<y  contrary,  it  comes  to  us  permeated,  through  and  through,  with  the 
personality  of  the  writer.  Whatever  ability,  knowledge,  wit,  or 
wisdom  has  been  shown  by  the  paper,  is  supposed  to  exist  in  some 
unseen  oracle  who  sits  veiled  behind  the  mysterious  "  we,"  and  who 
,  puts  himself  forth  as   a   public  teacher  and  guide.     The  opinions 

v;^.        expressed  have  an  added  weight  from  being  given  as  his,  —  the  opin- 
ions of  this  unknown,  all-knowing  Editor. 

Editor's  Estimate  of  his  Own  Position.  —  An  important  requisite, 
therefore,  in  a  writer  of  editorials,  is  the  ability  rightly  to  conceive 
of  himself  as  being  placed  in  this  responsible  position  of  a  public 
teacher.  He  must  know  how  to  use  with  vigor,  and  yet  with  discre- 
tion, a  certain  form  of  self-assertion.  It  is  not,  however,  the  mere  use 
of  "we"  that  makes  a  piece  of  composition  an  editorial.  The  best 
editorials  employ  this  formula  very  sparingly,  and  sometimes  omit 
it  altogether.  But  the  writer,  in  penning  such  articles,  conceives 
himself  as  one  set  to  teach.  His  business  is  to  give  his  opinions, 
and  that  for  the  express  purpose  of  influencing  the  opinions  of 
others.  * 

Editorials  and  News.  —  From  this  general  description,  it  will  be 
seen  at  once  how  difi"erent  is  the  business  of  writing  editorials  from 
that  of  writing  news.  The  one  simply  records  the  facts  of  the  day ; 
the  other  discusses  those  facts,  and  expresses  opinions  about  them, 
commending  or  condemning,  explaining  or  defending,  persuading 
and  exhorting,  assigning  causes  and  suggesting  remedies.  The  one 
writes  with  special  reference  to  clearness,  accuracy,  and  brevity ; 
the  other  calls  to  his  aid  all  the  graces  and  arts  of  the  most  finished 


276  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

rhetoric,  and  needs  for  his  task  a  knowledge  as  varied  as  the  entire 
range  of  subjects  embraced  in  the  scope  of  his  paper. 

Fame,  in  its  highest  sense,  is  rarely,  if  ever,  attained  by  writing 
editorials.  Yet  to  write  editorials  of  the  best  class  requires  ■& 
degree  and  variety  of  talent,  which,  if  employed  in  other  kinds  of 
writing,  would  ensure  high  and  lasting  fame. 

V.    REVIEVyS. 

Reviews  are  of  the  nature  of  editorials,  only  much  more 
extended.  A  review  is  a  very  long  editorial.  It  is  an 
article  of  many  pages,  giving  the  opinions  of  a  monthly  or 
a  quarterly  magazine,  instead  of  an  article  of  a  column  or 
part  of  a  column,  giving  the  opinions  of  a  weekly  or  a  daily 
paper. 

An  Organ.  —  The  magazine,  like  the  paper,  is  the  organ  of  a  cer- 
tain set  of  opinions.  Its  office  is  to  propagate  and  enforce  those 
opinions,  but  in  doing  so  it  enters  more  largely  into  the  details  of 
argument  and  explanation. 

Description.  —  Reviews,  like  editorials,  embrace  almost  every 
variety  of  subject.  They  are  commonly,  though  not  always,  based 
upon  some  book.  They  sometimes  examine  the  book  merely,  some- 
times the  subject  treated  of  in  the  book,  and  often  they  discuss  first 
the  book  and  then  some  subject  discussed  in  the  book,  or  suggested 
by  it. 

Macaulay's  Article  on  Milton.  —  Macaulay's  celebrated  article  in 
the  Edinburgh  Review,  in  1825,  on  the  occasion  of  the  recovery  of 
a  lost  work  of  Milton's,  is  a  good  illustration  of  the  kind  of  review 
just  named.  The  reviewer,  in  the  first  few  paragraphs,  gives  a 
brief,  but  comprehensive  and  sufl&ciently  critical  judgment  of  the 
bctok  or  essay  whose  title  is  quoted,  and  then  takes  occasion  to  go 
on  and  give  a  general  review  of  the  character  of  Milton  as  an  author 
and  a  man.     The  following  are  the  introductory  paragraphs : 

Towards  the  close  of  the  year  1823,  Mr.  Lemon,  Deputy  Keeper  of  the  State  Papera, 
In  the  course  of  his  researches  among  the  presses  of  his  office,  met  with  a  large  Latin 
manuscript.  With  it  were  found  corrected  copies  of  the  foreign  di'spatchcs  written  by 
Milton,  while  he  filled  the  office  of  Secretary,  and  several  papers  relating  to  the  Popish 
Trials  and  the  Rye-House  Plot.  The  whole  was  wrapped  up  in  an  envelope  super- 
scribed, "To  Mr.  Skinner,  Merchant."  On  examination,  the  large  manuscript  proved 
to  be  the  long-lost  Essay  on  the  Doctrines  of  Christianity,  which,  according  to  Wood 
aad  Toland,  Milton  finished  after  the  Restoration,  and  dfepoBlted  with  Cyrlac  Skinner. 


PROSE    COMPOSITION  —  REVIEWS.  277 

Skinner,  it  is  well  known,  held  the  same  political  opinions  with  his  illustrioHS  friend. 
It  is  therefore  probable,  as  Mr.  Lemon  conjectures,  that  he  may  have  fallen  under  the 
suspicions  of  the  Government  durfng  that  persecution  of  the  "Whigs  which  followed 
the  dissolution  of  the  Oxford  Parliament,  and  that,  in  consequence  of  a  general  seiz- 
ure of  his  papers,  this  work  may  have  been  brought  to  the  oflSce  in  which  it  had  been 
found.  But  whatever  the  adventures  of  the  manuscript  may  have  been,  no  doubt  can 
exist  that  it  is  a  genuine  relic  of  the  great  poet. 

Mr.  Sumner,  who  was  commanded  by  his  majesty  to  edit  and  translate  the  treatise, 
has  acquitted  himself  of  this  task  in  a  manner  honorable  to  his  talents  and  to  his 
character.  His  version  is  not,  indeed,  very  easy  or  elegant,  but  it  is  entitled  to  the 
praise  of  clearness  and  fidelity.  His  notes  abound  with  interesting  quotations,  and 
have  the  rare  merit  of  really  elucidating  the  text.  The  preface  is  evidently  the  work 
of  a  sensible  and  candid  man;  firm  in  his  own  religious  opinions,  and  tolei-ant 
towards  those  of  others. 

The  book  itself  will  not  add  much  to  the  fame  of  Milton.  It  is,  like  all  his  Latin 
works,  well  written,  though  not  exactly  in  the  style  of  the  prize  essays  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge.  There  is  no  elaborate  imitation  of  classical  antiquity;  no  scrupulous 
purity;  none  of  the  ceremonial  cleanness  which  characterizes  the  diction  of  our 
academical  Pharisees.  He  does  not  attempt  to  polish  and  brighten  his  composition 
into  the  Ciceronian  gloss  and  brilliancy.  He  does  not,  in  short,  sacrifice  8«n8e  and 
spirit  to  pedantic  refinements.  The  nature  of  his  subject  compelled  him  to  use  many 
words 

"That  would  have  made  Quintilian  stare  and  gasp." 

But  he  writes  with  as  much  ease  and  freedom  as  if  Latin  were  his  mother  tongut, 
and  where  he  is  least  happy  his  failure  seems  to  arise  from  the  carelessness  of  a  native, 
not  from  the  ignorance  of  a  foreigner.  What  Denham,  with  great  felicity,  says  of 
Cowley,  may  be  applied  to  him.  He  wears  the  garb  but  not  *he  clothes  of  the 
ancients. 

Throughout  the  volume  are  discernible  the  traces  of  a  powerful  and  independent 
mind,  emancipated  from  the  influence  of  authority,  and  devoted  to  the  search  of 
ti-uth.  He  professes  to  form  his  system  from  the  Bible  alone,  and  his  digest  of  Scrip- 
tural texts  is  certainly  among  the  best  that  have  appeared.  But  he  is  not  always  so 
happy  in  his  inferences  as  in  his  citations. 

Some  of  the  heterodox  opinions  which  he  avows  seem  to  have  excited  considerable 
amazement,  particularly  his  Arianism  and  his  notions  on  the  subject  of  polygamy. 
Yet  we  can  scarcely  conceive  that  any  person  could  have  read  the  Paradise  Lost  with- 
out suspecting  him  of  the  former.  Nor  do  we  think  that  any  reader,  acquainted  with 
the  history  of  his  life,  ought  to  be  much  startled  at  the  latter.  The  opinions  which 
he  has  expressed  respecting  the  nature  of  the  Deity,  the  eternity  of  mattsr,  and  th« 
observation  of  the  Sabbath,  might,  we  think,  have  caused  more  just  surprise. 

But  we  will  not  go  into  the  discussion  of  these  points.  The  book,  were  it  far  more 
orthodox  or  far  more  heretical  than  it  is,  would  not  much  edify  or  corrupt  the 
present  generation.  The  men  of  our  time  are  not  to  be  converted  or  perverted  by 
quartos.  A  few  more  days  and  this  Essay  will  follow  the  Defensio  Populi  to  the  dust 
and  silence  of  the  upper  shelf.  The  name  of  its  author,  and  the  remarkable  circum- 
stances attending  its  publication,  will  secure  to  it  a  certain  degree  of  attention.  For 
a  month  or  two  it  will  occupy  a  few  minutes  of  chat  in  every  drawing-room,  and  a 
few  columns  in  every  magazine,  and  it  will  then,  to  borrow  the  elegant  language  of  the 
play-bills,  be  withdrawn  to  make  room  for  the  forthcoming  novelties. 

We  wish,  however,  to  avail  ourselves  of  the  interest,  transient  as  it  may  be,  whioh 
this  work  has  dxeitea.  The  dexterous  Capuchins  never  ^hOT)«e  to  preacSi  on  the  lift 
24* 


278  COMPOSITION    AND    EHETORIC. 

and  miracles  of  a  saint  till  they  have  awakened  the  devotional  feelings  of  their  audi- 
tors by  exhibiting  some  relic  of  him  —  a  thread  of  his  garment,  a  lock  of  his  hair,  or 
a  drop  of  his  blood.  On  the  same  principle  we  intend  to  take  advantage  of  the  late 
interesting  discovery,  and,  while  this  memorial  of  a  great  and  good  man  is  still  in  the 
hands  of  all,  to  say  something  of  his  moral  and  intellectual  qualities.  Nor,  we  are 
convinced,  will  the  severest  of  our  readers  blame  us,  if,  on  an  occasion  like  the  present, 
wo  turn  for  a  short  time  from  the  topics  of  the  day  to  commemorate,  in  all  love  and 
reverence,  the  genius  and  virtues  of  John  Milton,  the  poet,  the  statesman,  the  philos- 
opher, the  glory  of  English  literature,  the  champion  and  the  martyr  of  English 
liberty. 

Nothing  better  in  the  way  of  general  review  of  character  has  ever 
been  written  in  English  than  the  essay  on  Milton  which  follows, 
unless  it  be  some  of  the  other  reviews  by  the  same  author. 

Macaulay  as  a  Reviewer.  —  His  works  in  this  line  are  indeed 
models  for  study,  and  have  given  the  author  a  world-wide  reputation. 
Macaulay  is  indeed  the  prince  of  reviewers,  and  his  reviews  alone 
are  a  monument  of  genius,  entitling  him  to  lasting  fame.  The  most 
remarkable,  besides  the  review  on  Milton,  are  those  on  Dryden, 
Bacon,  Warren  Hastings,  and  Boswell's  Life  of  Johnson. 

Among  other  English  authors  who  have  attained  special  celebrity 
as  writers  of  reviews  may  be  named  Jeffrey,  Sidney  Smith,  Brougham, 
and  Gifford. 

Keviews,  as  a  distinct  species  of  English  literature,  may  be  dated 
from  the  establishment  of  the  Edinburgh  Review,  in  1802. 

VI.    ESSAYS. 

Different  from  Reviews. — Essays  differ  in  some  respects 
from  reviews.  A  review,  like  an  editorial,  expresses  the 
opinions  of  some  acknowledged  representative  organ,  and 
its  utterances  have,  besides  their  own  inherent  value,  what- 
ever weight  of  authority  has  been  acquired  by  that  organ. 
But  an  essay  stands  solely  on  its  own  merits.  It  is  in  form 
entirely  impersonal,  or  if  the  author  introduces  himself  at 
all,  it  is  in  the  singular,  "  I,"  nof  with  the  editorial  "  we." 

Other  Differences.  —  An  essay  rarely  bases  its  remarks  upon  a 
book.  On  the  contrary,  it  begins  usually  with  a  subject,  and  if 
books  are  brought  in  at  all,  it  is  only  incidentally,  and  by  way  of 
reference  or  quotation.  Essays  treat  a  subject  in  a  more  formal  and 
systematic  manner  than  reviews  do,  and  are  divided  into  regular, 
numbered  heads,  chapters,  sections,  and  so  forth,  which  is  rarely,  if 
ever,  the  case  with  reviews. 


PROSE    COMPOSITION  —  TREATISES.        279 

Resemblances.  — ^  While  there  are  these  slight  differences  between 
essays  and  reviews,  there  are  between  them  many  more  points  of 
resemblance.  The  difference,  indeed,  is  in  form  rather  than  in  sub- 
stance. Substantially,  a  large  part  of  the  best  reviews  in  the  lan- 
guage, as  for  instance  a  majority  of  those  written  by  Macaulay,  are 
essays. 

Number  of  Essayists.  —  The  number  of  essayists  is  almost  identical 
with  that  of  writers,  for  essays  are  written  by  almost  every  one 
who  is  engaged  in  any  of  the  other  kinds  of  authorship.  Some  few 
authors,  indeed,  have  limited  their  writings  to  essays.  They  are 
essayists  and  nothing  else.  But  the  great  majority  of  essays  which 
have  swelled  the  volume  of  our  literature,  have  been  written  by 
those  whose  main  work  was  in  some  other  vein,  as  historians,  biog- 
raphers, poets,  and  so  forth. 

Mode  of  Publication.  — Essays  now  usually  appear  first  as  contri- 
butions to  magazines.  After  publication  in  this  form,  they  are  some- 
times collected  and  published  in  separate  volumes.  Mr.  Whipple 
and  Mr.  Tuckerman  have  published  several  such  volumes,  which 
may  be  safely  commended  to  the  notice  of  any  reader  who  desires  to 
become  acquainted  with  this  class  of  writings.  The  best  essays,  by 
far,  however,  which  have  appeared  in  our  recent  literature,  are 
those  by  Lowell,  in  a  volume  entitled  "  Among  My  Books." 

Size.  —  Essays  vary  in  size,  from  the  brief  attempts  produced  as 
school  exercises,  to  elaborate  and  lengthened  works,  covering  some- 
times several  hundred  printed  pages. 

VII.     TREATISES. 

A  Treatise  is  a  written  discourse  or  composition  on  some 
subject,  setting  forth  its  principles  in  a  systematic  and 
orderly  manner. 

Diflferent  from  Essays.  — treatises  differ  from  essays  mainly  in 
being  more  formal  and  scientific.  They  are  more  frequently  divided, 
than  essays  are,  into  regular  chapters,  sections,  sub-sections,  and 
so  on. 

More  Complete.  —  Another  point  of  difference  is,  that  an  essay 
may  select  for  remark  particular  parts  of  a  subject,  while  a  treatise 
is  expected  to  embrace  the  whole  subject.  An  essay  on  architecture, 
for  instance,  might  merely  show  the  uses  of  architecture,  or  might 


280  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

advocate  the  superiority  of  the  Gothic  over  the  classic,  or  might  dis- 
cuss anyone  or  More  of  a  hundred  points  connected  with  the  subject; 
but  a  treatise  on  architecture  would  be  required  to  go  over  the  whole 
subject  in  all  its  varieties  and  subdivisions. 

Difference  of  Style.  —  Treatises  are  usually  plain  in  style,  rarely 
admitting  of  any  kind  of  figures  of  speech,  or  rhetorical  ornament, 
while  essays  abound  in  ornaments  and  figures,  and  give  full  oppor- 
tunity for  the  use  of  every  kind  of  rhetorical  beauty. 

Difference  of  Subject.  —  Essays  more  commonly  refer  to  some  of 
the  fine  arts,  or  to  subjects  which  are  not  capable  of,  or  have  not 
yet  been  reduced  to,  a  scientific  classification ;  treatises  are  usually 
upon  some  definite  branch  of  science,  as  astronomy,  botany,  algebra, 
logic,  metaphysics,  theology,  and  the  like. 

Impersonal.  —  A  treatise  is  comparatively  impersonal,  setting  forth 
the  bare  facts  and  truths  of  the  subject ;  in  an  essay,  as  in  an  edi- 
torial, the  thoughts  are  more  or  less  tinctured  with  the  personality 
of  the  writer.  A  treatise  is  usually  an  exposition  of  certain  truths; 
an  essay,  the  advocacy  of  certain  opinions. 

Text  Books,  whether  those  for  scientific  reference,  or  those  for 
study  in  schools  and  seminaries  of  learning,  are  treatises.  This 
branch  of  literature,  though  not  unknown  to  the  ancients,  has  re- 
ceived an  enormous  development  in  modern  times,  and  especially 
within  the  last  fifty  years. 

VIII.     TRAVELS. 

Books  of  travel. come  nearer  to  diaries  than  to  any  other 
kind  of  writing. 

Compared  with  a  Diary. — A  book  of  travel  usually  contains  a 
record  of  things  seen  or  done  from  day  to  day,  and  in  that  respect 
is  like  a  diary.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  travels  are  written,  not  to 
assist  the  memory  of  the  writer,  but  jl^owedly  for  the  information 
of  others,  and  this  will  naturally  affect  the  style. 

Accuracy.  —  The  traveller,  like  the  diarist,  is  under  a  special  obli- 
gation of  accuracy  in  regard  to  dates,  and  indeed  to  facts  generally. 
That  which  gives  the  chief  value  to  a  book  of  travel  is  the  informa- 
tion which  it  contains.  It  tells  the  reader  things  which  he  cannot 
Bee  for  himself.  The  traTcUer  is  in  the  witness-box,  and  we  look  to 
him  for  the  exact  truth. 


PROSE    COMPOSITION  —  HISTORY.  281 

Other  Qualities.  — While  accuracy  is  the  first  quality  demanded  in 
travels,  they  admit  freely  all  the  other  graces  of  style.  Some  of  the 
travellers  of  the  present  day  are  very  successful  as  humorists,  and 
their  books  abound  in  passages  of  eloquent  description  and  exciting 
narrative.  But  it  is  hardly  to  be  expected  of  works  written  in  the 
haste  and  excitement  of  actual  travel,  —  and  unless  so  written  they 
want  some  of  that  freshness  and  truth  which  are  their  highest  charm, 
—  that  they  should  have  that  entire  finish  of  style  which  we  demand 
in  works  written  under  circumstances  of  more  deliberation. 

Travels  are  often  written  in  the  form  of  letters. 

IX.    HISTORY. 

History  holds  about  the  same  rank  in  prose  composition 
that  the  epic  does  in  poetry.  The  proper  office  of  the  histo- 
rian is  to  record  important  events  for  the  instruction  of  man- 
kind. The  fundamental  qualities  required  of  him,  there- 
fore, are  impartiality,  fidelity,  and  accuracy. 

The  observations  which  follow  are  taken  from  Blair,  with  Bome 
unimportant  alterations. 

General  Character  of  History.  —  It  is  not  every  record  of  facts  that 
is  entitled  to  the  name  of  history,  but  such  a  record  as  enables  us  to 
apply  the  transactions  of  former  ages  for  our  own  instruction.  The 
fiicts  ought  to  be  momentous  and  important ;  represented  in  connec- 
tion with  their  causes,  traced  to  their  effects,  and  unfolded  in  clear 
and  distinct  order.  For  wisdom  is  the  great  end  of  history.  It  is 
designed  to  supply  the  want  of  experience.  Its  object  is  to  enlarge 
our  views  of  the  human  character,  and  to  give  full  exercise  to  our 
judgment  on  human  affairs.  It  must  not,  therefore,  be  a  tale,  cal- 
culated to  please  only,  and  addressed  to  the  fancy.  Gravity  and 
dignity  are  essential  characteristics  of  history ;  no  light  ornaments 
are  to  be  employed,  no  flippancy  of  style,  no  quaintness  of  wit.  But 
the  writer  must  sustain  the  character  of  a  wise  man,  writing  for  the 
instruction  of  posterity,  one  who  has  studied  to  inform  himself  well, 
who  has  pondered  his  subject  with  care,  and  addresses  himself  to 
our  judgment  rather  than  to  our  imagination.  At  the  same  time, 
historical  writing  is  by  no  means  inconsistent  with  ornamented  and 
spirited  narration.  It  admits  of  much  high  ornament  and  elegance  ; 
but  the  ornaments  must  be  always  consistent  with  dignity  ;    they 


282  COMPOSITION    AND    EHETORIC. 

should  not  appear  to  be  sought  after,  but  to  rise  naturally  from  a 
mind  animated  by  the  events  which  it  records. 

Unity  of  Subject.  — In  the  conduct  and  management  of  his  subject, 
the  first  thing  requisite  in  an  historian,  is  to  give  it  as  much  unity  as 
possible  ;  that  is,  his  history  should  not  consist  of  separate,  uncon- 
nected parts  merely,  but  should  be  bound  together  by  some  connect- 
ing principle,  which  shall  make  the  impression  on  tlio  mind  of  some- 
thing that  is  one,  whole,  and  entire.  It  is  inconceivable  how  great 
an  effect  this,  when  happily  executed,  has  upon  the  reader,  and  it  is 
surprising  that  some  able  writers  of  history  have  not  attended  to  it 
more.  Whether  pleasure  or  instruction  be  the  end  sought  by  the 
study  of  history,  either  of  them  is  enjoyed  to  much  greater  advantage 
when  the  mind  has  always  before  it  the  progress  of  some  one  great 
plan  or  system  of  action  —  when  there  is  some  point  or  centre,  to 
which  we  can  refer  the  vai*ious  facts  related  by  the  historian. 

Complex  Subjects.  —  In  general  histories,  which  record  the  affairs 
of  a  whole  nation  or  empire  throughout  several  ages,  this  unity  is 
necessarily  imperfect.  Yet,  even  there,  some  degree  of  it  can  be 
preserved  by  a  skilful  writer.  For  though  the  whole,  taken  together, 
be  very  complex,  yet  the  great  constituent  parts  of  it  form  so  many 
subordinate  wholes  when  taken  by  themselves ;  each  of  which  can 
be  treated  both  as  complete  within  itself,  and  as  connected  with 
what  goes  before  and  follows.  In  the  history  of  a  monarchy,  for 
instance,  every  reign  should  have  its  own  unity  —  a  beginning,  a 
middle,  and  an  end,  to  the  system  of  affairs ;  while  at  the  same  time, 
we  are  taught  to  discern  how  that  system  of  affairs  rose  from  the 
preceding,  and  how  it  is  inserted  into  what  follows. 

Chronological  Order.  —  The  historian  must  not  indeed  neglect  chro- 
nological order,  with  a  view  to  render  his  narration  agreeable.  He 
must  give  a  distinct  account  of  the  dates,  and  of  the  coincidence  of 
facts.  But  he  is  not  under  the  necessity  of  breaking  off  always  in 
the  middle  of  transactions  in  order  to  inform  us  of  what  was  hap- 
pening elsewhere  at  tlie  same  time.  He  discovers  no  art,  if  he  can- 
not form  some  connection  among  the  affairs  which  he  relates,  so  as 
to  introduce  them  in  a  proper  train.  He  will  soon  tire  the  reader 
if  he  goes  on  recording,  in  strict  chronological  order,  a  multitude  of 
separate  transactions,  connected  by  nothing  else  but  their  happening 
at  the  same  time. 

Qualities  of  Historical  Narration.  —  Let  us  next  proceed  to  consider 
the  proper  qualities  of  historical  narration.     The  first  virtue  of  his- 


PROSE    COMPOSITION  —  HISTORT.  283 

torical  narration  is  clearness,  order,  and  due  connection.  To  attain 
this  the  historian  must  be  completely  master  of  his  subject;  he  must 
see  the  whole  as  at  one  view,  and  comprehend  the  chain  and  depend- 
ence of  all  its  parts,  that  he  may  introduce  everything  in  its  proper 
place,  that  he  may  lead  us  smoothly  along  the  track  of  affairs  which 
are  recorded,  and  may  always  give  us  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  how 
one  event  arises  out  of  another. 

Keeping  up  the  Connection.  —  Nothing  tries  an  historian's  abilities 
more,  than  so  to  lay  his  train  beforehand,  as  to  make  us  pass  natu- 
rally and  agreeably  from  one  part  of  his  subject  to  another;  to 
employ  no  clumsy  and  awkward  junctures ;  and  to  contrive  ways  and 
means  of  forming  some  union  among  transactions  which  seem  to  be 
most  widely  separated  from  one  another. 

Gravity  of  Style.  —  In  the  next  place,  as  history  is  a  very  dignified 
species  of  composition,  gravity  must  always  be  maintained  in  the 
narration.  There  must  be  no  meanness  or  vulgarity  in  the  style ;  no 
quaint  or  colloquial  phrases;  no  affectation  of  pertness  or  of  wit. 
The  smart  or  the  sneering  manner  of  telling  a  story  is  inconsistent 
with  the  historical  character.  I  do  not  say  that  an  historian  is  never 
to  let  himself  down.  He  may  sometimes  do  it  with  propriety,  in 
order  to  diversify  the  train  of  his  narration,  which,  if  it  be  perfectly 
uniform,  is  apt  to  become  tiresome.  But  he  should  be  careful  never 
to  descend  too  far,  and  on  occasions  where  a  light  or  ludicrous  anec- 
dote is  proper  to  be  recorded,  it  is  generally  better  to  throw  it  into 
a  note  than  to  hazard  becoming  too  familiar  by  introducing  it  into 
the  body  of  the  work. 

Dulness  to  be  Avoided.  — Bat  an  historian  may  possess  these  qual- 
ities of  being  perspicuous,  distinct,  and  grave,  and  may  notwith- 
standing be  a  dull  writer,  in  which  case  we  shall  reap  little  benefit 
from  his  labors.  We  shall  read  him  without  pleasure,  or,  most  prob- 
ably, we  shall  give  over  reading  him  at  all.  He  must,  therefore, 
study  to  render  his  narration  interesting. 

How  to  Keep  up  the  Interest.  —  An  historian  that  would  interest 
us  must  know  when  to  be  concise,  and  where  he  ought  to  enlarge ; 
passing  concisely  over  slight  and  unimportant  events,  but  dwelling 
on  such  as  are  striking  and  considerable  in  their  nature,  so  pregnant 
with  consequences  ;  preparing  beforehand  our  attention  to  them,  and 
bringing  them  forth  into  the  most  full  and  conspicuous  light.  He 
must  also  attend  to  a  proper  selection  of  the  circumstances  belong- 
iag  to  those  events  which  he  chooses  to  relate  fully.     General  facts 


284  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETOBIC. 

make  a  slight  impression  on  the  mind.  It  is  by  means  of  circum- 
stances and  particulars  properly  chosen  that  a  narration  becomes 
interesting  and  affecting  to  the  reader.  These  give  life,  body,  and 
coloring  to  the  recital  of  facts,  and  enable  us  to  behold  them  as 
present  and  passing  before  our  eyes.  It  is  this  employment  of  cir- 
cumstances in  narration  that  is  properly  termed  historical  painting. 

Delineation  of  Characters.  —  The  drawing  of  characters  is  one  of 
the  most  splendid,  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  most  diflBcuH, 
ornaments  of  historical  composition.  For  characters  are  generally 
considered  as  professed  exhibitions  of  fine  writing,  and  an  historian 
who  seeks  to  shine  in  them  is  frequently  in  danger  of  carrying 
refinement  to  excess,  from  a  desire  of  appearing  very  profound  and 
penetrating.  He  brings  together  so  many  contrasts,  and  subtle 
oppositions  of  qualities,  that  we  are  rather  dazzled  with  sparkling 
expressions  than  entertained  with  any  clear  conception  of  a  human 
character.  A  writer  who  would  characterize  in  an  instructive  and 
masterly  manner  should  be  simple  in  his  style,  and  should  avoid  all 
quaintness  and  afiFectation,  at  the  same  time  not  contenting  himself 
with  giving  us  general  outlines,  but  descending  into  those  peculiar- 
ities which  mark  a  «haracter  in  its  most  strong  and  distinctive  fea- 
tures. 

Sound  Morals  to  be  Enforced.  —  As  history  is  a  species  of  writing 
designed  for  the  iastruction  of  mankind,  sound  morality  should 
always  reign  in  it.  Both  in  describing  characters  and  in  relating 
transactions,  the  author  should  always  show  himself  to  be  on  the 
side  of  virtue.  To  deliver  moral  instruction  in  a  formal  manner, 
falls  not  within  his  province,  but  both  as  a  good  man  and  a  good 
writer,  we  expect  that  he  should  discover  sentiments  of  respect  for 
virtue,  and  an  indignation  at  flagrant  vice.  To  appear  neutral  and 
indifferent  with  respect  to  good  and  bad  characters,  and  to  affect 
a  crafty  and  political,  rather  than  a  moral  turn  of  thought,  will, 
besides  other  bad  effects,  derogate  greatly  from  the  weight  of  histor- 
ical composition,  and  will  render  the  strain  of  it  much  more  cold  and 
uninteresting.  We  are  always  most  interested  in  the  transactions 
which  are  going  on  when  our  sympathy  is  awakened  by  the  story, 
and  when  we  become  engaged  in  the  fate  of  the  actors.  But  this 
effect  can  never  be  produced  by  a  writer  who  is  deficient  in  sensi- 
bility and  moral  feeling. 

Annals.  — Annals  are  an  inferior  kind  of  history.  A  book 


PROSE    COMPOSITION  —  BIOGRAPHY.      285 

of  annals  is  a  collection  of  facts  arranged  in  strict  chrono- 
logical order. 

Annals  rather  contain  the  materials  of  history  than  constitute  his- 
tory itself.  The  chief  qualities  required  in  a  writer  of  annals  is  that 
he  be  clear,  accurate,  and  complete. 

Memoirs.  —  Memoirs  also  are  a  species  of  historical  writ- 
ing, though  not  strictly  constituting  history. 

Less  Complete.  —  The  writer  of  memoirs  does  not  pretend  to  give 
a  complete  account  of  transactions,  but  only  to  relate  such  portions 
of  them  as  he  himself  had  access  to,  or  had  something  to  do  with. 
We  do  not  expect  from  him  the  same  profound  research,  or  the  same 
varied  information,  that  we  expect  from  the  historian. 

Less  Dignified.  — The  writer  is  not  held  to  the  same  unvarying 
gravity  and  dignity,  or  to  the  same  impersonal  style  of  narration 
that  is  required  in  history.  He  may  indulge  in  familiar  anecdotes 
and  pleasantry,  and  may  freely  mix  up  himself  and  his  own  personal 
aifairs  with  the  public  affairs  which  he  commemorates.  Memoirs 
are,  in  fact,  of  the  nature  of  reminiscences.  They  are  a  testimony 
by  an  eye-witness.  Hence  they  have  a  double  character.  They  are 
usually  very  entertaining  to  be  read  by  themselves,  and  they  fur- 
nish to  the  regular  historian  one  of  his  most  valuable  storehouses  of 
materials. 

Biography. — A  biography  is  the  history  of  one  individual. 
Biography  is,  therefore,  a  species  of  historical  composition. 

Different  from  History. — Biography  diflFers  from  history  proper, 
not  only  in  being  thus  limited  in  its  range,  but  also  in  being  less 
stately  and  formal.  In  this  latter  respect  biography  corresponds 
with  memoirs,  descending  to  the  particulars  of  private  life  and  to 
familiar  incidents. 

Different  from  Memoirs.  —  Biography  differs,  on  the  other  hand, 
from  memoirs,  in  being  complete  in  itself.  It  is  no  objection  to  me- 
moirs that  they  are  fragmentary,  containing  only  selected  portions 
of  the  transactions  commemorated.  But  a  biography  of  a  man  is 
expected  to  give  his  whole  life,  just  as  the  history  of  a  nation  or  of 
a  period  is  expected  to  give  its  whole  history. 

Autobiography  is  a  biography  of  a  person  written  by  himself. 
26  19 


286  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

X.     FICTION. 

A  Fiction  is  a  story  made  up  of  incidents  invented  for 
the  purpose. 

Its  Prevalence.  —  Fictitious  writing  lias  existed  in  all  ages  of  the 
world,  and  in  nearly  all  departments  of  literature,  but  it  has  received 
its  greatest  enlargement  in  the  present  age.  The  works  of  fiction 
now  produced  exceed  in  number  those  of  any  other  class,  if,  indeed, 
they  do  not  equal  those  of  all  other  classes  combined.  Fully  one- 
half  of  all  the  reading  done  by  the  community  is  the  reading  of 
fiction. 

Names.  —  The  names  most  commonly  given  to  works  of  fiction  are 
Novels  and  Romances.  These  terms  are  for  the  most  part  used  in- 
discriminately, though  romances  more  strictly  mean  a  class  of  fiction 
in  which  the  manners,  incidents,  and  sentiments  are  of  a  rather 
extravagant  kind. 

Kinds.  —  Novels  are  divided  into  two  leading  classes,  historical 
and  domestic. 

Historical  Novels  are  those  in  which  the  events  of  history  are 
introduced,  and  historical  persons  are  represented  as  talking  and 
acting.  The  most  celebrated  historical  novels  are  those  of  Sir  Wal- 
ter Scott.  The  historical  novel  may  be  made  very  interesting,  and 
may  help  the  dull  and  unimaginative  reader  in  forming  a  more  dis- 
tinct conception  of  past  events,  but  it  is  very  unsafe  as  a  guide  in 
studying  history.  The  novelist  naturally  shapes  the  facts  to  suit  his 
story,  instead  of  shaping  his  story  to  suit  the  facts.  The  great  mass 
of  novels,  however,  are  of  a  domestic  character,  the  incidents  being 
such  as  occur  in  private  life. 

Appeal  to  Curiosity.  —  The  novelist  relies  for  the  interest  of  his 
story,  first  and  mainly,  upon  the  curiosity  of  the  reader.  The  inci- 
dents being  of  the  writer's  own  creation,  he  contrives  so  to  arrange 
them  as  to  conceal  from  his  readers  the  issue  of  the  affair  until  the 
very  end  of  the  story.  If  the  novelist  were  to  begin  his  story  by 
acquainting  his  readers  at  the  outset  with  the  issue  of  the  whole,  so 
that  we  should  know  from  the  first  who  is  to  be  married  or  killed, 
and  how  things  generally  are  to  turn  out,  which  is  in  the  main  our 
condition  in  sitting  down  to  read  history  or  biography,  an  epic,  or  a 
play,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  not  one  novel  in  a  hundred  would  ever  b9 
read. 


PEOSE    COMPOSITION  —  FICTION.  287 

Other  Means.  —  Curiosity,  however,  is  not  the  only  means  on 
which  the  novelist  relies  to  secure  readers.  The  incidents  and  the 
characters  being  entirely  of  his  own  creation,  he  can,  if  skilful 
enough,  make  them  of  the  kind  which  will  be  in  themselves  pleasing 
and  attractive,  and  he  can  use  at  will  all  those  advantages  of  com- 
bination and  contrast  which  tend  to  heighten  the  effect. 

Delineation  of  Character.  —  Another  great  source  of  interest  in 
novels  is  the  opportunity  they  give  for  the  delineation  of  character. 
In  history  the  writer  must  take  his  characters  as  he  finds  them.  In 
fiction  the  writer  creates  his  characters.  He  clothes  them  with  such 
qualities  as  he  pleases,  and  then  creates  for  them  circumstances 
which  enable  them  to  act  out  these  qualities  in  the  sight  of  the 
reader.  Such  a  mental  process,  that  is,  obtaining  a  clear  concep- 
tion of  a  character,  and  then  seeing  that  character  developed  in  action 
before  our  eyes,  is  always  a  source  of  pleasure,  and  the  novelist  has 
a  field  for  the  employment  of  it,  bounded  only  by  his  own  faculties 
of  conception  and  invention. 

General  Effect.  —  The  greater  part  of  the  fiction  now  published 
a-nd  read  has  no  other  object  than  mere  pleasure,  and  that  of  a  very 
low  kind.  Novels  of  this  sort  have  a  debasing  effect  upon  the  public 
mind.  The  reading  of  them  is  a  mere  mental  dissipation,  unfitting 
the  reader  both  for  reading  of  a  more  elevated  kind,  and  for  the 
active  duties  of  life. 

Effect  on  the  Memory. — I  give  it,  too,  as  my  opinion,  the  result 
of  a  long  course  of  observation,  in  a  profession  peculiarly  fitted  for 
such  a  purpose,  that  much  and  indiscriminate  novel-reading  has  a 
most  disastrous  effect  upon  the  memory.  Indeed,  I  am  not  sure  that 
the  debilitating  effect  upon  the  mental  faculties  is  not  a  more  serious 
evil  even  than  its  relaxing  influence  upon  the  conscience  and  the 
moral  sensibilities. 

Novels  of  a  Higher  Aim. — A  good  many  novels  have  a  higher 
aim,  being  intended  by  their  authors  to  disseminate  theories  of  life 
and  morals,  and  even  of  religion.  Dickens's  novels,  for  instance, 
are  aimed  mainly  at  social  vices,  and  so  efficiently  has  he  propagated 
his  opinions  on  these  subjects,  by  means  of  his  fictions,  that  he  has 
created  a  strong  public  sentiment  in  favor  of  his  social  views. 

Beligious  Fiction.  —  No  inconsiderable  part  of  the  fiction  now  pro- 
duced has  for  its  professed  object  the  inculcation  of  religious  truth. 
Nine-tenths  of  all  the  religious  books  written  for  children  are  fictions 
of  this  kind.     The  Sunday-school  books,  of  which  not  less  than  three 


288  COMPOSITION    AND    EHETORIC. 

or  four  millions  are  read  every  week  in  the  United  States  alone, 
are  almost  exclusively  fictions.  The  subject  demands  the  serious 
consideration  of  those  intrusted  with  the  religious  training  of  the 
young. 

XI.    DISCOURSES. 

A  Discourse  diflfers  from  the  other  kinds  of  composition 
which  have  been  described,  in  that  it  is  intended  to  be  read 
or  spoken  to  the  persons  addressed,  instead  of  being  read  by 
them. 

In  an  essay,  a  review,  or  a  history,  the  writer  prepares  something 
which  others  are  to  read  for  themselves.  In  a  discourse  of  any  kind 
he  prepares  something  which  he  intends  himself  to  read  or  speak  to 
others.  Discourses  which  have  been  written  may,  of  course,  be  read 
by  any  one,  as  well  as  by  the  writer.  But  that  is  not  their  primary 
intention.  They  are  in  the  form  of  an  address  to  be  presented  by 
the  author  to  an  audience. 

Kinds  of  Discourse.  —  The  principal  kinds  of  discourses 
are  Orations,  Addresses,  Sermons,  Lectures,  and  Speeches. 

Orations. — An  Oration  is  a  discourse  of  the  most  formal 
and  elaborate  kind. 

Occasions.  —  An  Oration  is  generally  in  commemoration  of  some 
important  public  event,  or  in  eulogy  of  some  distinguished  person, 
or  on  an  occasion  of  some  kind  justifying  the  most  deliberate  and 
careful  preparation.  An  oration,  therefore,  more  than  any  other 
kind  of  discourse,  must  have  a  full  and  rounded  completeness  as  a 
work  of  art.  The  most  finished  specimen,  probably,  of  an  oration, 
in  recent  times,  was  the  eulogy  on  Washington,  by  Edward  Everett. 

Addresses. — An  Address  is  a  discourse  nearly  akin  to  an 
oration,  but  somewhat  less  formal  in  character,  and  much 
less  restricted  in  regard  to  the  occasion  and  the  subject. 

Occasions. — One  may  deliver  an  address  on  almost  any  occasion,  and 
on  every  variety  of  subject,  lowly  or  lofty.  The  Governor  of  a  State, 
the  President  of  a  College,  or  the  Chairman  of  a  political  meeting, 
on  entering  upon  the  duties  of  his  office,  usually  delivers  an  address. 

College  Addresses.  —  Perhaps,  in  the  United  States,  the  kind  of 
address  which  has  received  most  attention  is  that  of  which  w©  haye 


PROSE    COMPOSITION — DISCOURSES.      289 

annually  so  many  examples  at  our  College  Commencements.  I  refer 
not  to  the  speeches  of  the  graduating  classes,  but  to  those  delivered 
before  the  literary  societies  of  the  College,  and  on  their  invitation, 
by  graduates  of  high  standing  in  the  various  professions. 

Sermons.  —  A  Sermon  is  a  formal  discourse  by  a  clergy- 
man, intended  for  religious  instruction,  and  founded  usually 
on  some  passage  of  Scripture. 

Sermons  are  too  well  known  to  require  further  description. 

Lectures. — A  Lecture  is  a  discourse  intended  primarily 
for  instruction,  and  on  any  subject,  secular  or  religious. 

Kinds  of  Lectures.  —  Lectures  may  be  conveniently  divided  into 
three  different  kinds,  namely:  1.  Those  delivered  in  schools,  col- 
leges, and  other  institutions  of  learning,  for  the  direct  purpose  of 
instructing  a  class.  2.  Those  delivered  in  churches,  usually  on  some 
week-day  evening,  for  the  purpose  of  religious  instruction  and  ex- 
hortation, and  less  formal  than  a  sermon.  3.  Those  delivered  before 
a  popular  audience,  on  some  secular  subject,  and  intended  partly  to 
entertain,  and  partly  to  instruct. 

Lectures  so  called.  —  There  is  a  class  of  public  performances, 
whose  sole  object  is  to  create  amusement,  and  that  not  of  the  most 
elevated  kind.  These  are  sometimes  called  lectures,  but  they  have 
no  legitimate  claim  to  the  title,  any  more  than  tho  performances  of 
a  band  of  negro  minstrels. 

Speeches.  —  Every  kind  of  discourse  is  in  some  sense  a 
speech.  But  the  term  Speech  is  often  used  in  a  special  and 
restricted  sense.  In  this  sense  it  differs  from  the  other  kinds 
of  discourse  in  being  always  intended  to  be  spoken,  while  the 
others  are  mainly  intended  to  be  read ;  in  not  being  intended 
for  instruction,  as  the  others  mostly  are;  and  in  not  being 
limited  to  any  particular  subject  or  occasion. 

Occasions.  —  The  most  common  places  for  speech-making  are  courts 
of  justice,  legislative  assemblies,  and  popular  conventions  of  various 
kinds,  political,  educational,  and  religious. 

Speeches  are  usually  delivered  extemporaneously,  that  is,  they  are 
composed  at  the  time  and  in  the  act  of  delivery,  though  they  may 
be,  and  often  are,  composed  beforehand  and  committed  to  memory. 
25* 


290  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETOKIC. 

The  kinds  of  discourse  here  enumerated  by  no  means  exhaust  the 
subject.  They  include,  however,  the  principal  varieties,  and  are 
sufficiently  comprehensive  for  the  present  purpose. 

General  Principles. — In  the  construction  of  all  the  more  formal 
kinds  of  discourse,  certain  general  principles  are  to  be  observed. 
These  are  the  following : 

1.  Unity. — A  Discourse  which  is  to  produce  a  profound 
impression  must  maintain  a  certain  unity  of  subject.  This 
is  as  important  in  a  public  discourse  as  it  is  in  an  epic  poem. 

Explanation. — A  speaker  does  not  infringe  upon  the  unity  of  his 
discourse  by  introducing  a  variety  of  topics,  provided  all  those 
topics  have  some  common  bond  of  union,  connecting  and  subordinat- 
ing them  all  to  one  leading  thought  or  purpose.  A  man  might  in  one 
lecture,  without  serious  distraction  of  the  minds  of  his  audience, 
discourse  on  Bryaijt,  Longfellow,  Whittier,  and  Boker,  because  they 
are  all  poets,  all  Americans,  and  all  contemporaries,  and  he  might 
use  them  to  illustrate  some  one  general  topic  in  literature,  or  literary 
history.  But  were  he  to  attempt  in  the  same  lecture  to  discuss  Bry- 
ant's Thanatopsis,  the  character  of  Wellington,  and  the  discovery  of 
gunpowder,  he  would  assuredly  distract  the  minds  of  his  audience, 
and  weaken  the  effect  of  whatever  he  had  to  say. 

2.  Adaptation  to  the  Audience.  —  In  a  Discourse  to  be 
read  or  spoken  to  others,  we  must,  both  in  the  subject 
selected  and  in  the  manner  of  treating  it,  have  reference  to 
the  character  of  the  persons  addressed. 

Different  from  a  Treatise.  —  Discourses  diflFer  in  this  respect  from 
ordinary  treatises,  in  which  the  author  has  to  look  at  his  subject  only. 
A  man  might  with  propriety  lecture  on  differential  calciilus  to  a 
company  of  savans  or  to  an  advanced  class  in  college,  but  he  could 
hardly  do  so  to  a  mixed  popular  assembly.  Whoever  wishes  to  suc- 
ceed as  a  lecturer,  or  as  a  speaker  of  any  kind,  must  study  his  audi- 
ence as  well  as  his  subject,  and  adapt  his  discourse  both  to  the  occa- 
sion and  the  hearers. 

3.  Symmetry.  —  A  Discourse  is  symmetrical  when  it  has 
all  the  parts  belonging  to  such  a  production,  and  these  parts 
are  all  in  due  order  and  correlation. 


PROSE    COMPOSITION — DISCOURSES.         291 

Parts  of  a  Discourse. —  The  parts  properly  belonging  to  a  formal 
discourse  are — 1.  The  Introduction.  2.  The  Statement  of  the  Sub- 
ject. 3.  The  Main  Discourse.  4.  The  Conclusion.  On  each  of 
these  a  few  observations  will  be  made. 

1.  The  Introduction. — A  formal  introduction  or  exordium  is  not 
always  required.  Its  object,  when  used,  is,  first,  to  conciliate  the 
goodwill  of  the  hearers ;  secondly,  to  gain  their  attention ;  thirdly, 
to  make  them  open  to  conviction  by  removing  any  prejudices  or  pre- 
possessions they  may  have  against  the  topic  or  the  cause  which  we 
are  about  to  present.  As  a  good  introduction  is  one  of  the  most 
important,  so  it  is  one  of  the  most  difficuH  parts  of  a  discourse. 

Tilings  to  be  Observed. —The  rules  to  be  observed  in  regard  to  it  are: 
first,  that  it  be  easy  and  natural,  arising  from  the  subject  itself;  secondly,  that  it  be 
expressed  with  more  than  usual  accuracy  and  care,  as  the  hearers  are  never  in  so  crit- 
ical a  mood  aa  then ;  thirdly,  that  it  have  an  air  of  modesty,  which  in  the  beginning 
of  a  discourse  is  especially  prepossessing ;  fourthly,  that  it  should  be  calm  and  mod- 
erate, the  audience  being  not  yet  prepared  for  anything  strong  and  vehement ;  fifthly, 
that  it  should  not  anticipate  any  of  the  main  points  of  the  discourse,  and  thus  deprive 
them  of  the  advantage  of  novelty,  when  they  are  brought  forward  for  consideration. 

2.  The  Statement.  —  When  by  a  good  introduction  a  speaker  has 
done  what  he  can  to  gain  for  himself  and  his  subject  a  favorable 
hearing,  his  next  business  is  to  state  the  subject  of  his  discourse. 
The  only  rule  to  be  observed  in  regard  to  this  is  that  the  subject 
should  be  stated  in  few  and  simple  words,  and  with  the  utmost  pos- 
sible clearness. 

3;  The  Main  Discourse. — Writers  on  rhetoric  have  made  here 
many  subdivisions,  such  as  the  explication  or  narration,  the  divi- 
sion, the  argumentative  part,  and  the  pathetic  part,  and  under  each 
of  these  they  have  laid  down  almost  numberless  rules.  But  the 
utility  of  such  rules  and  divisions  is  very  much  doubted.  Each  man 
must  of  necessity  be  left  to  his  own  judgment  and  powers  of  inven- 
tion as  to  the  best  manner  of  constructing  the  body  of  his  discourse. 
No  two  topics  ordinarily  are  to  be  handled  precisely  alike ;  no  two 
writers  handle  the  same  topic  exactly  in  the  same  way ;  no  writer 
himself  handles  a  topic  in  the  sam^  way  under  different  circum- 
stances. 

4.  The  Conclusion. —  The  Conclusion  or  Peroration  of  a  discourse, 
like  the  Introduction,  requires  special  care.  The  object  in  the  con- 
clusion is  to  leave  as  strong  an  impression  as  possible  upon  the 
minds  of  the  audience. 


292 


COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 


How  Done.  —  Sometimes  this  is  done  by  reserving  to  the  last  the 
strongest  part  or  head  of  the  discourse  and  ending  with  it.  Some- 
times the  speaker  gives  a  brief  and  striking  summary  of  the  whole 
discourse.  The  main  thing  to  be  observed  is  to  hit  upon  the  precise 
time  for  bringing  the  discourse  to  a  point.  If  this  is  done  too 
abruptly,  it  leaves  the  hearers  expectant  and  dissatisfied.  If,  when 
the  discourse  seems  ended  and  the  hearers  are  looking  for  the  close, 
the  speaker  continues  turning  round  and  round  the  point,  without 
coming  to  a  pause,  the  audience  become  restless  and  tired.  There 
are  indeed  very  few  speakers  that  know  how  or  when  to  stop. 


Part  II 


I  NVENTION. 

Iw  the  Introduction  to  the  present  Treatise,  it  was  remarked  that 
Rhetoric,  or  the  Art  of  Discourse,  is  naturally  divided  into  two 
parts,  Invention  and  Style.  Logically,  Invention  would  seem  to 
come  first,  and  Style  afterwards.  For  practical  convenience,  how- 
ever, this  arrangement  has  been  reversed,  and  Style  has  been  treated 
of  first. 

Invention,  as  used  in  Rhetoric,  means  finding  out  what  to 
say. 

Invention  is  divided  into  two  branches:  1.  Storing  the 
mind  with  knowledge ;  2.  Selecting  from  this  general  store- 
house the  thoughts  needed  for  any  particular  occasion. 

Storing  the  Mind.  —  The  first  of  these  belongs  to  education  and 
general  intellectual  culture,  rather  than  to  Rhetoric.  If  one  is  to 
write  on  any  given  subject,  he  can,  of  course,  know  better  what  to 
say,  if  he  is  a  man  of  profound  and  varied  knowledge. 

Mistake  of  the  Older  "Writers.  —  Hence,  some  of  the  ancient  writers 
on  this  subject  included  under  Rhetoric  the  whole  circle  of  the  sciences.  But  this  is 
to  mistake  entirely  the  nature  and  design  of  Rhetoric.  In  order  to  the  practice  o\ 
this  art  we  need,  indeed,  varied  knowledge,  just  as  we  need  boards  and  beams  and 
other  materials  in  order  to  practise  the  art  of  carpentry.  It  is  not  a  part  of  the  art 
of  carpentry,  however,  to  create  these  materials  ;  but,  the  materials  being  already  in 
existence  and  in  possession,  carpentry,  having  to  make  some  particular  structure, 
finds  out  which  of  these  materials  will  be  needed  for  the  occasion. 

Tlie  Office  of  Invention.  — Somewhat  similar  to  this  is  the  office  of 
Invention  in  rhetoric.    When  one  undertakes  to  discourse  on  any  particular  point, 

298 


294  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETOBIC. 

he  must  hunt  up  thoughts  in  regard  to  it ;  and  these  he  will  find,  partly  in  his  already 
acquired  knowledge,  and  partly  by  special  study  for  the  occasion  ;  and  the  more  com- 
prehensive is  his  general  knowledge  and  education,  the  less  of  this  special  study  will 
he  have  to  make  when  finding  materials  for  discourse. 

Comparative  Importance.  —  Invention  is,  from  the  necessity  of  the 
case,  of  more  importance  than  Style.  It  is  more  important  surely  to 
have  something  of  substantial  interest  and  value  to  say,  than  to  be 
able  to  trick  out  vapid  nothings  in  forms  of  grace  and  elegance. 

Difficulty.  — As  invention  is  the  more  important  of  the  two,  so  it  is  incom- 
parably the  more  difficult.  Indeed,  as  to  its  principal  functions,  it  is  not  in  the 
power  of  mere  rhetoric  to  supply  what  is  needed.  Invention,  except  in  its  lowest 
and  most  mechanical  details,  is  not  a  thing  to  be  taught.  It  is  a  part  of  one's  native 
endowment,  and  of  his  general  intellectual  accumulations.  To  gather  and  muster 
the  materials  for  an  essaj',  as  Macaulay  would  have  done,  one  needs  Macaulay's 
genius  and  Macaulay's  learning.  No  amount  or  ingenuity  of  pumping  will  draw 
water  from  a  well  that  is  dry. 

The  Great  Desideratum.  —  So  far  as  human  efforts  are  concerned, 
the  first  and  great  thing  that  is  needed,  in  order  to  be  able  to  pro- 
duce thoughts  which  shall  be  valuable  and  interesting,  is  to  acquire 
extensive  knowledge  and  thorough  mental  discipline,  and  this  is  to 
be  accomplished,  as  already  said,  by  general  education  and  study, 
not  by  the  application  of  rhetorical  rules. 

A  Help.  —  While  freely  conceding  this  point,  I  yet  think  it  is  in 
the  power  of  the  rhetorical  art  to  help  considerably  the  beginner  in 
the  use  of  such  materials  as  he  has.  To  furnish  some  such  help  is 
the  object  of  the  chapters  which  follow. 

Ancient  Mode.  —  The  ancient  writers  on  rhetoric,  and  some  of 
recent  date,  have  given  a  great  variety  of  technical  rules,  some  of 
them  exceedingly  formal  and  elaborate,  for  conducting  these  pro- 
cesses of  invention. 

Mode  here  Adopted.  —  Instead  of  producing  such  a  learned  array 
of  barren  formulas,  which,  at  the  best,  are  only  perplexing  to  the 
beginner  in  the  art  of  composition,  as  they  are  useless  to  the  expert, 
the  plan  here  adopted  is  to  give  a  series  of  practical  examples,  in 
illustration  of  the  actual  process  of  invention,  beginning  with  such 
as  are  extremely  simple,  and  proceeding  gradually  to  such  as  are 
more  difficult. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Compositions  on  Objects. 

To  THE  Teacher. — 1.  The  examples  given  in  the  first  few  pages  are  for  beginnerSi 
If  your  class  is  already  somewhat  proficient  in  composition  and  in  general  knowledge, 
it  will  be  well  to  skip  the  first  chapter  or  two,  and  begin  farther  on  in  the  book, 
where  the  exercises  are  less  simple. 

2.  Beginners  in  composition,  particularly  if  quite  young,  should  not  be  allowed  to 
write  ou  abstract  subjects,  such  as  Happiness,  Hypocrisy,  Intemperance,  Procrastina- 
tion, and  the  like,  but  on  some  concrete,  visible  object,  with  which  they  are  familiar. 

3.  In  assigning  subjects  to  a  class,  it  is  well  at  first  to  help  them  in  making  an  out- 
line of  the  things  to  be  said  about  it.  After  this  has  been  done  for  them  a  few  times, 
they  will  have  no  difficulty  in  doing  it  for  themselves,  and  finally  in  writing  out  their 
ideas  at  once,  without  making  the  preliminary  outline. 

4.  Try  to  possess  your  pupils  from  the  first  with  the  idea  that  what  they  have  to  do 
is  simply  to  express  in  words  what  they  know,  or  what  they  think,  about  the  subject 
proposed. 

5.  At  first,  aim  only  at  copiousness,  correcting  no  faults  except  those  in  gram- 
mar and  punctuation,  and  encouraging  the  pupils  to  write  freely  whatever  thoughts 
come  up  about  the  subject,  and  in  whatever  order  they  happen  to  come  up. 

6.  When  the  class  begin  to  write  freely,  and  find  no  difficulty  in  filling  a  page  or 
two  with  their  loose  remarks,  then  begin  to  criticize  and  correct. 

7.  In  making  these  corrections,  proceed  with  only  one  class  of  faults  at  a  time, 
and  correct  no  fault  except  this,  until  the  pupils  have  become  pretty  familiar  with  it. 
Then  take  some  other  fault  or  excellence,  and  proceed  in  like  manner. 

8.  After  a  class  can  write  with  facility  and  general  correctness,  then  begin  to  exper- 
iment upon  the  use  of  figures  and  other  graces  of  style . 

Example  1.  —  Subject,  Paper. 

To  THE  Teacher.  —  In  assigning  a  subject  like  this  to  a  class  gf  young  scholars,  the 
teacher  should  direct  their  attention  to  the  various  points  in  regard  to  it,  about  which 
they  will  be  likely  to  have  some  idea.  In  this  way  a  preliminary  Outline  of  the  sub- 
ject may  be  formed.    Thus : 

Outline. 

1.  General  appearance  of  paper. 

2.  Its  color. 


296  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

3.  Some  of  the  forms  in  which  it  comes. 

4.  Materials  of  which  it  is  usually  made. 
6.  Some  of  its  uses. 

6.  Ways  in  which  it  may  be  destroyed,  or  unfitted  for 
use. 

COMPOSITION. 

1.  The  general  appearance  of  paper  is  that  of  a  thin,  light  sheet, 
with  a  smooth  and  uniform  surface. 

2.  Its  color  is  various.  Sometimes  it  is  white,  sometimes  pink, 
sometimes  it  has  a  bluish  tinge,  sometimes  it  is  mottled.  Indeed,  it 
may  be  of  any  color,  but  most  commonly  it  is  white. 

3.  Paper  usually  comes  in  sheets,  and  these  sheets  are  of  various 
sizes,  such  as  note  paper,  letter  paper,  and  foolscap.  These  sheets 
are  put  up  in  small  packages  called  quires,  and  the  quires  are  put 
into  larger  packages  called  reams.  Twenty -four  sheets  make  a 
quire,  and  twenty  quires  make  a  ream. 

4.  Paper  is  usually  made  of  old  rags,  but  I  believe  it  may  be  made 
of  many  other  things,  such  as  straw  and  bark  ;  but  I  never  saw  a 
paper-mill,  and,  therefore,  I  cannot  say  certainly.  Linen  rags  are 
said  to  be  better  than  cotton  rags  for  making  paper.  Men  often  go 
round  from  house  to  house  to  buy  old  rags,  which  they  sell  to  the 
paper-makers.  These  rag-men  never  buy  woollen  rags  for  this*pur- 
pose ;  and  if  the  linen  rags  are  sorted  out  and  kept  by  themselves,  they 
will  bring  a  higher  price  than  other  rags.  1  My  mother  lets  me  have 
all  the  rags  in  our  house,  jpid  I  keep  them  put  away  in  a'  bag,  and 
the  money  for  which  they  are  sold  is  mine  to  spend  or  to  put  into 
the  missionary  box.  i 

5.  Paper  is  used  chiefly  for  writing  and  for  printing.  Composi- 
tions are  written  on  paper.  Newspapers  and  books  are  printed  on 
paper.  Bank-bills  are  made  of  paper.  Paper  is  used  for  making 
boxes  and  for  covering  walls.  Boys'  kitfts  are  made  of  paper;  so 
are  men's  collars  sometimes. 

6.  Paper  is  very  easily  destroyed  by  fire.  It  burns  sooner  than 
Almost  anything  else.  Water  also  injures  it  badly.  It  is  not  tough 
like  leather,  but  is  easily  torn.  Paper  is  damaged  by  being  rumpled. 
If  you  want  your  composition  or  your  letter  to  look  nice,  you  must 
take  good  care  of  your  paper,  and  keep  it  smooth  and  clean.  I  keep 
my  paper  in  a  portfolio  which  my  father  gave  me  for  a  Christmas 
present. 

To  THE  TEAcnER.— In  the  imaginary  composition  given  above,  the  paragraphs  are 
for  convenience  numbered  to  correspond  to  the  numbers  iu  the  outline. 


COMPOSITIONS    ON    OBJECTS.  297 

Perhajw,  in  the  first  few  compositions  which  a  class  may  write,  it  may  be  well  for 
them  in  like  manner  to  number  the  topics  and  paragraphs.  After  a  while,  however, 
the  practice  should  be  discontinued. 

The  plan  here  adopted,  of  first  making  an  outline  of  topics,  and  then  writing 
something  upon  each  topic,  has  the  important  incidental  advantage  of  teaching  begin- 
ners the  difficult  art  of  paragraphing  correctly.  What  is  written  under  each  head  or 
topic  naturally  forms  a  paragraph  by  itself,  and  thus  the  pupils  easily  fall  into  the 
way  of  dividing  their  matter  into  paragraphs  according  to  the  natural  divisions  of 
the  subject. 

Beginners  should  be  encouraged,  not  merely  to  state  facts  on  the  subjects  of  which 
they  write,  but  to  mix  up  their  own  notions  and  feelings  about  these  facts,  as  the 
writer  of  the  foregoing  composition  has  done  at  the  close  of  his  fourth  and  sixth 
paragraphs. 

Example. — Subject,  Water. 

Outline. 

1.  Differences  between  water  and  wood. 

2.  Differences  between  water  and  air. 

3.  Effect  of  extreme  cold  upon  water. 

4.  Effect  of  extreme  heat  upon  water. 

5.  Different  kinds  of  water. 

6.  Benefits  of  water. 

Note.  —  The  teacher  must  prepare  similar  suggestive  outlines  on  each  subject  as- 
signed, until  the  class  become  familiar  with  the  method,  and  begin  to  show  signs  of 
being  able  to  make  their  own  outlines.  When  they  do  begin  thus  to  make  outlines 
for  themselves,  the  teacher  will  for  a  while  find  it  necessary  to  supplement  their 
attempts  by  suggestions  of  his  own,  to  be  added  to  theirs.  He  must  exercise  his 
discretion  as  to  how  long  this  help  should  be  continued,  and  when  the  pupils  should 
be  required  to  make  the  entire  outline  without  help. 

The  preparation  of  this  outline  is  of  the  very  essence  of  invention.  It  sets  the 
pupil  at  once  to  thinking  —  to  gathering  thoughts,  instead  of  putting  together  mere 
words.  The  outline,  therefore,  should  be  a  leading  portion  of  the  exercise  for  a  long 
time,  and  should  in  each  case  be  submitted  to  the  teacher  for  inspection  and  comment, 
before  the  composition  is  written. 

ADDITIONAL    SUBJECTS. 

Fire,                    Air,  Wood, 

Iron,                    Leather,  Chalky 

(GrassJ                 Houses,  /Dogs,  ") 

jBricks,    .  .  Skat^  \Dolls, 

(Flowers,               Fruits^  iPenkniveS) 

Note.  —  Children  should  continue  for  some  time  to  write  on  subjects  like  these — 
natural  objects  with  which  they  are  daily  familiar.    In  writing  upon  those  topics, 
however,  they  should  be  contiauaJly  stimulated  to  do  something  more  than  merely 
26 


298 


COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 


give  a  dry,  semi-scientific  enumeration  of  the  qualities  and  properties  of  the  object 
described.  Let  them,  on  the  contrary,  freely  mix  up  their  own  personality  in  the 
matter,  telling  what  particular  kind  of  dolls,  or  skates,  or  dogs  they  like,  who  was 
burned  by  the  fire,  who  fell  into  the  water,  and  so  on.  Children  will  find  no  difficulty 
in  having  something  to  write,  when  once  they  have  made  the  discovery  that  writing 
compositions  is  merely  putting  upon  paper  their  knowledge  of  such  things  as  they 
are  acquainted  with,  and  telling  what  they  think  about  them. 

Note  2.  —  No  rule  can  be  given  for  the  length  of  time  in  which  children  should  be 
kept  upon  compositions  of  the  kind  already  illustrated.  It  depends  a  good  deal  upon 
the  age  at  which  the  pupil  begins  the  exercise.  If  scholars  begin  to  write  composi- 
tions at  the  agd  of  nine  or  ten,  they  may  be  kept  upon  such  themes  ft*  a  year  or  two, 
writing  as  often  as  once  or  twice  a  week.  Any  teacher  of  ordinary  inventive  powers 
can  supply  subjects.  If,  however,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  scholar  is  already  consid- 
erably advanced  in  years  and  knowledge  before  beginning  to  write  compositions,  two 
or  three  examples  of  this  kind  may  be  suflBcient,  before  proceeding  to  those  more 
difficult.  The  decision  of  this  point  must,  in  each  case,  be  left  to  the  discretion  and 
judgment  of  the  teacher. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Compositions  on   Transactions. 

Note.  —  The  examples  which  are  given  in  tliis  chapter,  while  still  occupied  mainly 
"With  the  concrete  and  the  visible,  rather  than  with  abstract  qualities  and  relations, 
yet  differ  clearly  from  those  in  Chapter  I.  The  topics  in  the  first  chapter  are  simply 
objects.    Those  now  to  be  given  involve  whatTnay  be  called  transactions. 

Example.  —  Subject,  On  Going  to  School. 

Outline. 

1.  The  object  of  going  to  school. 

2.  The  age  for  going  to  school. 

3.  Behavior  at  school. 

4.  Behavior  on  the  road  to  and  from  school. 

5.  Difference  between  a  school  and  a  religious  meeting. 

6.  The  usual  exercises  of  a  school. 

7.  School-time. 

COMPOSITION. 

1.  The  object  of  going  to  school  is  to  learn  those  things  which  will 
be  useful  to  us  when  we  are  grown  up.  One  who  goes  to  school,  and 
learns  to  read  well,  and  to  write  a  beautiful  hand,  and  knows  a  great 
many  things,  is  much  more  thought  of  than  one  who  cannot  read  or 
spell,  and  who  has  to  make  his  mark  instead  of  writing  his  name. 
An  ignorant  man,  who  never  went  to  school,  is  not  much  thought  of. 

2.  The  proper  age  for  people  to  go  to  school  is  when  they  are 
young,  before  they  have  to  work  to  get  a  livrng.  Young  boys  and 
girls  are  not  strong  enough  to  do  much  work,  but  they  can  go  to 
school  and  study  just  as  well  as  not,  for  they  have  nothing  else  to 
do.     If  they  play  truant,  and  manage  to  get  out  of  going  to  school, 

299 


300  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

they  will  be  very  sorry  for  it  afterwards.  Some  children  go  to 
school  when  they  are  only  five  years  old,  but  I  think  that  is  rather 
too  young.  Six  or  seven  seems  to  me  a  good  age  to  begin.  Those 
who  are  to  be  doctors,  or  lawyers,  or  ministers,  or  something  of  that 
kind,  go  to  school  a  great  many  years.  They  go  first  to  the  common 
school,  then  to  the  High  School  or  the  Academy,  then  to  the  College 
and  the  Seminary,  and  they  do  not  stop  going  until  they  are  grown- 
up men.  But  most  persons  have  to  leave  school  when  they  get  to  be 
fourteen  or  fifteen.  I  expect  to  leave  school  before  I  am  sixteen.  I 
should  like  very  much  to  go  to  College. 

3.  It  is  not  very  easy  to  behave  well  in  school,  so  many  things 
happen  to  make  one  laugh  and  to  forget  all  about  the  rules.  The 
hardest  thing  of  all  is  to  keep  from  whispering.  But  it  is  right  for 
the  teacher  to  forbid  it,  for  if  all  could  talk  as  much  as  they  pleased, 
there  would  not  be  much  study  done.  There  is  no  excuse  for  boys 
and  girls  playing  tricks  on  each  other  in  school,  and  watching  when 
the  teacher's  back  is  turned,  so  that  they  may  throw  spitballs  or  do 
something  to  make  the  other  scholars  laugh.  Such  behavior  is  with- 
out excuse.  If  scholars  would  behave  well  in  school,  they  would  be 
a  great  deal  happier,  for  they  would  enjoy  the  approbation  of  their 
teachers,  they  would  learn  much  more,  and  they  would  not  be  kept 
in  so  often,  or  be  punished  so  often. 

4.  Misbehavior  on  the  road  to  and  from  school,  always  looks  bad. 
It  gives  people  a  bad  opinion  of  the  school,  and  also  of  the  families 
to  which  the  scholars  belong.  It  looks  as  if  the  scholars  were  very 
ill-bred,  and  did  not  know  what  good  manners  are.  Besides,  when 
the  school  breaks  up,  it  makes  a  large  crowd  in  the  street,  and  if  the 
scholars  are  rude  and  unmannerly,  they  incommode  people  who  are 
going  by.  It  is  wrong  for  the  scholars,  while  going  home  from 
school,  to  throw  stones  or  snowballs,  or  anything  of  that  kind,  in  the 
street,  for  they  often  break  people's  windows,  or  hit  ladies  and  gen- 
tlemen who  are  passing. 

5.  I  know  that  a  school  is  very  different  from  a  religious  meeting 
or  a  church,  but  I  do  not  know  that  I  can  explain  the  difference  very 
clearly.  In  church  that  I  go  to,  one  man  preaches  or  prays  or 
exhorts,  and  all  the  rest  sit  still  and  listen.  But  in  school,  we  are 
divided  into  classes,  and  we  all  read  and  recite  in  turn.  It  is  a  great 
deal  stiller  in  church  than  it  is  in  school,  but  I  suppose  school  would 
be  a  good  deal  better  if  we  were  stiller  than  we  are.  Boys  and  girls 
never  think  of  playing  such  pranks  in  church  as  they  do  in  school. 
It  would  be  awful. 

6.  The  exercises  in  our  school  are  reading,  spelling,   writing, 


COMPOSITIONS    ON    TRANSACTIONS.        301 

studying,  and  reciting  our  different  lessons.  Sometimes  we  sing. 
Sometimes  we  choose  sides  in  spelling,  and  see  which  can  beat. 
Composition  is  another  exercise.  Also,  we  have  speaking  once  a 
week. 

7.  School-time  in  most  schools  is  from  9  o'clock  to  12  in  the  morn- 
ing, and  from  2  o'clock  to  4  in  the  afternoon.  There  is  a  recess  in 
the  middle  of  the  forenoon,  and  no  school  at  all  on  Saturday,  or  in 
Christmas  week,  or  on  Washington's  birth-day,  or  the  4th  of  July. 
Then  we  have  a  week's  vacation  in  spring,  and  a  long  vacation  in 
summer.  Scholars  are  always  impatient  for  vacation  to  come,  but 
generally  get  tired  of  it  before  it  is  over. 

Example.  —  Subject,  On  Travelling. 

Outline. 

1.  Different  modes  of  travelling. 

2.  Things  to  be  gained  by  travelling. 

8.  Mishaps  and  dangers  to  be  encountered  in  travelling. 

4.  Some  of  the  places  and  people  that  I  would  like  to  visit. 

5.  Books  of  travel  which  I  have  read,  and  the  countries, 
&c.,  described  in  them. 

OTHEB    STTBJECTS. 

1.  The  Study  of  Geography. 

2.  The  Study  of  History. 

3.  Cultivating  Flowers. 

4.  Obedience  to  Parents. 

5.  Giving  Way  to  Anger. 

6.  Early  Rising. 

7.  Treatment  of  Animals.  ^ 

8.  Learning  to  Draw. 

9.  Attention  to  Dress. 
10.  Going  to  the  Circus. 

In  glTing  additional  subjects  under  this  head,  the  teacher  shoxild  limit  himself  to 
euch  as  are  familiar  to  the  scholars,  and  involve  a  transaction  of  some  kind. 


26*  20 


.CHAPTER  III. 

Compositions  on  Abstract  Subjects. 

After  a  sufBcient  number  of  examples  have  been  given  of  themes  involving  simply 
objects,  as  in  Chapter  I.,  and  familiar  transactions,  as  in  Chapter  II.,  the  scholar 
should  begin  to  undertake  themes  involving  abstract  qualities,  though  still  confininjf 
kimself  to  such  as  are  of  a  very  familiar  character.    Such  are  the  following: 

Example.  —  Subject,  Fear. 

Outline. 

1.  A  Definition  of  fear. 

2.  Uses  of  fear. 
8.  Signs  of  fear. 

4.  Unreasonable  fears. 

5.  Keasonable  fears. 


COMPOSITION. 

1.  Fear  is  defined  to  be  "a  painful  emotion  excited  by  an  appre- 
hension of  impending  danger."  In  this  definition,  which  is  taken 
from  the  dictionary,  there  are  four  things  to  be  noticed.  First,  fear 
is  an  emotion  of  the  mind.  This  distinguishes  it  from  bodily  acts 
and  affections.  Secondly,  it  is  painful.  This  distinguishes  it  from 
many  other  mental  emotions,  such  as  joy  and  the  like.  Thirdly,  it 
is  excited  in  view  of  something  impending,  or  yet  to  come.  This 
distinguishes  it  from  remorse,  and  other  such  feelings,  which  refer 
to  what  is  past.  Fourthly,  it  is  excited  in  view  of  coming  danger. 
This  distinguishes  it  from  hope,  and  feelings  of  that  kind  which 
look  forward  to  coming  happiness.  The  definition,  therefore,  in- 
eludes  a  great  deal,  although  it  is  short, 

2.  Fear  has  many  uses.     It  makes  people  careful.     There  would 

802 


COMPOSITIONS   ON   ABSTRACT  SUBJECTS.  303 

be  a  great  many  more  crimes  than  there  now  are,  if  wicked  men 
were  not  afraid  of  the  consequences  of  wrong-doing.  Fear  of  being 
drowned  makes  boys  more  careful  about  going  into  the  water.  Fear 
of  bad  marks  or  of  other  kinds  of  punishment  sometimes  keeps 
scholars  from  misbehaving,  or  from  neglecting  their  lessons.  Horses 
and  dogs  and  other  animals  are  made  to  mind  through  fear  of  their 
master ;  but  that  is  not  the  only  motive,  for  they  often  seem  to  do 
things  from  affection,  and  even  from  ambition  and  from  pride. 

3.  Though  fear  is  a  mental,  not  a  bodily  affection,  it  shows  itself  by 
bodily  signs.  When  a  horse  is  frightened,  he  often  trembles  all 
over,  but  generally  he  runs  away,  looking  wildly  out  of  his  eyes. 
When  a  dog  is  afraid,  he  hangs  his  head  and  sneaks  away,  with  his 
tail  drooping  between  his  legs.  Almost  all  animals  crouch  and  lower 
their  heads  when  they  are  afraid.  In  men,  fear  shows  itself  chiefly 
in  their  loss  of  color.  A  man  who  is  very  much  terrified  generally 
becomes  ghastly  white.  I  have  seen  it  stated  that  the  reason  of  this 
is  that  the  blood  leaves  the  face  and  rushes  back  toward  the  heart. 
People  who  are  frightened  look  wild  out  of  the  eyes  also,  just  as 
horses  and  other  animals  do.  Another  common  sign  of  fear,  both 
with  animals  and  with  men,  is  that  it  leads  them  to  cry  out,  scream, 
roar,  or  make  some  other  frantic  noise. 

4.  Fear  is  unreasonable  when  it  is  without  any  good  cause,  or 
when  the  danger  apprehended  is  imaginary.  It  is  this  kind  of  fear 
which  leads  ignorant  people  to  be  afraid  of  the  dark,  or  of  witches 
and  ghosts.  Horses  often  get  frightened  at  imaginary  danger. 
They  see  a  leaf  stir  at  the  side  of  the  street,  and  they  seem  to  think 
it  is  some  monster  about  to  spring  upon  them,  and  off  they  jump  to 
the  other  side  of  the  street.  Horses  seem  more  easily  frightened 
than  any  other  animals  by  unreal  danger.  When  a  person  looks 
down  from  the  top  of  a  house  or  of  a  high  tower,  he  is  apt  to  be 
afraid,  even  though  there  is  a  strong  railing,  so  that  he  could  not 
fall  over  if  he  tried.  This  seems  to  be  an  unreasonable  fear,  and 
yet  almost  everybody  feels  it.  We  have  the  same  feeling  when 
standing  on  the  platform  of  a  railroad  station,  as  the  engine  comes 
thundering  up.  We  know  we  are  beyond  its  reach,  and  yet  we  in- 
voluntarily shrink  back  from  the  monster. 

5.  Fear  is  reasonable  when  the  evil  apprehended  is  real,  and  is  of 
such  magnitude  that  it  is  likely  to  cause  us  great  distress.  If  a 
man  had  fallen  upon  the  railroad  track,  and  his  feet  had  caught  fast 
in  the  timbers,  so  that  he  could  not  get  off,  and  he  should  see  the 
train  coming  at  full  speed,  he  would  be  horribly  afraid,  and  his  fear 
would  be  perfectly  reasonable.     If  a  man  had  murdered  another,  or 


304  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

had  committed  any  great  crime,  he  would  have  reason  to  be  afraid, 
because  the  hand  of  justice  may  at  any  time  overtake  him.  The 
Bible  says,  "Be  sure  your  sin  shall  find  you  out."  A  man  who  com- 
mits a  crime  is  like  a  man  who  is  entangled  on  a  railroad  track,  and 
he  knows  not  when  the  engine  will  come  rushing  along,  and  over- 
whelm him.  It  is  said  that  thieves  and  burglars,  though  sometimes 
desperate,  are  great  cowards,  and,  indeed,  they  have  reason  to  be. 
There  is  one  fear  which  we  should  all  have,  and  that  is  the  fear  of 
God  our  Maker. 

Note.  —  In  beginning  a  composition  on  a  subject  like  the  foregoing,  it  will  often  be 
found  convenient  to  begin  by  taking  a  definition  from  the  dictionary.  It  is  not  neces- 
eary,  however,  always  to  begin  in  this  way.  The  teacher  should  see  to  it  that  the 
method  is  varied. 

Example.  —  Subject,  Memory. 

Outline. 

1.  The  importance  of  being  able  to  remember  what  we 
have  seen  or  heard  of. 

2.  How  far  back  the  writer  can  go  in  his  recollection  of 
things  which  happened  to  himself 

3.  Instances  of  very  great  memory  which  we  haye  known 
or  read  of 

4.  Methods  of  improving  the  memory. 

5.  Danger  of  overtaxing  the  memory. 

6.  Indications  of  memory  in  animals. 

OTHER    SUBJECTS. 

Friendship,  Improvement  of  Time, 

Hatred,  Advantages  of  a  Good  Education, 

Perseverance,  A  Habit  of  Procrastination, 

Industry,  The  Danger  of  Bad  Company, 

Ambition,  The  Use  of  Profane  Language. 

Note.  —  Subjects  like  those  are  very  common,  and  may  be  multiplied  indefinitely  at 
the  discretion  of  the  teacher. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Compositions  on  Imaginary  Subjects. 

To  Teachers.  —  Exercises  like  those  already  given,  if  persistently  followed  up,  ctm 
hardly  fail  to  beget  in  the  pupil  some  readiness  of  invention,  as  well  as  some  facility 
of  expression.  But  there  is  danger,  if  the  plan  is  followed  exclusively,  of  its  leading 
to  a  sort  of  mechanical  and  monotonous  formalism.  Something  is  needed,  therefore, 
to  stir  the  imagination,  which  in  the  young  is  almost  always  capable  of  great  activ- 
ity, if  properly  appealed  to.  The  best  method  of  awakening  this  faculty  is  to  assign 
unreal  subjects,  in  w-hich  the  scholar  has  no  resource  but  simply  to  make  up  some- 
thing out  of  his  own  head.  Teachers  who  have  never  tried  this  plan  will  be  sur- 
prised to  find  how  inventive  the  young  mind  naturally  is.  Such  a  plan  is  only 
employing,  in  the  exercise  of  composition,  the  dramatic  and  creative  talent  which 
almost  all  children  show  in  their  sports. 

Examples  of  this  sort  of  compositions  are  given  here,  for  practical  convenience  in 
exhibiting  those  of  the  same  kind  together.  But  in  actual  teaching,  it  is  better  to 
use  exercises  of  this  kind  interchangeably  with  those  described  in  Chapters  I.,  II., 
and  III.  The  teacher  may  begin  to  assign  subjects  of  the  kind  now  under  considera- 
tion as  soon  as  the  scholar  has  written  two  or  three  compositions  like  those  in 
Chapter  I.,  and  so  the  practice  may  be  continued  as  an  occasional  variation  all 
through  the  exercises  in  the  first  three  chapters.  Indeed,  the  practice  is  a  good  one 
at  every  stage  of  the  process  of  learning  to  compose,  though  most  valuable  in  the 
early  stages. 

In  assigning  these  imaginary  subjects,  no  preliminary  outline  is  needed.  None, 
indeed,  is  possible.  An  outline  is  based  upon  logical  considerations,  whereas  here 
there  is  no  basis  of  logic  to  build  upon,  but  the  whole  thing  is  left  designedly  to  the 
caprice  of  the  imagination,  working  according  to  "  its  own  sweet  will." 

Instead  of  making  up  examples  under  this  head,  I  give  some  which  were  actually 
•written  as  school  exercises,  and  without  any  expectation  on  the  part  of  the  writers 
that  the  exercises  would  ever  appear  in  print.  They  are  given  with  all  their  imper- 
fections, as  thereby  showing  better  the  real  character  of  the  exercise.  Some  of  them, 
it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say,  are  from  extremely  juvenile  authors. 

Examples.  —  Subject,  The  Man  in  the  Moon. 

1,    By  a  young  Miss  of  ten. 

I  do  not  know  from  whence  this  phrase  originated.  It  is  certainly 
false,  for  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  man  in  the  moon.     But  I  knoyr 

805 


306  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

by  my  own  experience,  that  the  longer  you  look  at  the  moon,  the 
plainer  you  can  see  the  face.  This  is  all  imagination.  The  dark 
places  that  we  see,  are  caused  by  the  reflection  o**  the  sun  shining 
on  the  mountains.  The  sailors  think  there  is  a  man  in  the  moon,  for 
they  have  been  to  sea  [see].  Some  old  bachelors  say,  that  the  reason 
why  the  girls  look  so  much  at  the  moon,  is  because  there  is  a  man 
in  it.  I  do  not  know  anything  more  about  this  subject  than  "the 
man  in  the  moon." 

2.  By  a  Miss  of  thirteen. 

It  has  been  ascertained  by  scientific  observation  that  the  moon  is 
uninhabited,  by  reason  of  its  being  so  hot  as  to  be  unable  to  support 
life.  A  man  with  salamandrine  qualities  might  possibly  be  an  in- 
habitant of  the  lunar  realms,  and  only  a  man  with  such  qualities  can 
we  suppose  the  man  in  the  moon  to  be ;  but,  oh  !  what  a  stretch  our 
imagination  has  to  take  to  imagine  such  a  marvellous  thing. 

The  man  with  whom  I  have  formed  an  acquaintance  came  into 
existence  about  a  century  after  the  Creation.  Jove,  finding  that  if 
the  moon  had  not  something  to  temper  its  light  to  mortal  eyes,  it 
would  so  dazzle  as  to  blind  us,  placed  his  deformed  child  Vulcan 
in  the  subterranean  vaults  of  Mount  Etna,  there  to  manufacture  a 
shield  to  protect  us  from  its  brilliancy. 

Vulcan,  being  very  ingenious,  first  constructed  a  woman,  but  find- 
ing she  had  so  great  a  propensity  for  running  after  the  sun  that  she 
was  never  in  her  place,  he  threw  her  into  the  crater  of  Vesuvius, 
and  then  set  about  constructing  something  more  enduring.  He 
wished  to  make  something  just  the  opposite  of  woman,  and  his  mind 
immediately  settled  on  a  man  as  her  antipodes.  So  he  sent  his  work- 
men to  Stromboli  while  it  was  in  a  state  of  eruption,  to  collect  the 
burning  lava  ;  and  having  brought  it  to  Etna,  he  moulded  it  with  his 
own  hands  into  the  shape  of  a  man.  Vulcan  then  cooled  it,  and, 
when  suflficiently  cold,  carried  it  to  the  court  of  Jove  for  his  inspec- 
tion. 

Jove  was  delighted  with  it,  and  wishing  to  confer  as  great  an 
honor  as  possible  on  Vulcan,  he  breathed  into  the  nostrils  of  the 
lava  man,  this  being  the  greatest  honor  that  could  be  bestowed. 
Vulcan  then  carried  it  back  to  Etna,  and  having  heated  it  to  the 
highest  pitch,  transported  it  up  to  the  moon,  where,  instead  of 
placing  it  directly  in  the  interior,  he  suspended  it  by  a  cord  from 
the  throne  of  Jove  at  the  back  of  it.  He  then  inclined  the  man  so 
that  his  UQse,  mouth,  and  eyes  projected  from  the  outside  of  tho 


COMPOSITIONS   ON  IMAGINARY  SUBJECTS.        307 

moon,  thus  tempering  the  light,  and  making  it  more  pleasant  to  our 
eyes. 

This  is  the  origin  of  the  man  in  the  moon. 

The  features  of  the  man  projecting  have  given  rise  to  the  story  of 
the  mountains  in  the  moon. 

3.    By  a  Miss  of  fifteen- 

From  early  childhood  I  have  always  entertained  the  most  profound 
respect  for  this  personage,  and  presume  I  ever  shall,  for  reasons 
some  of  which  will  be  stated  in  my  brief  account  of  him. 

Even  the  mention  of  his  name,  unequalled  in  the  annals  of  time 
for  simplicity,  fills  one  with  admiration  and  awe.  He  bears  no  sur- 
n-ame,  and  his  family  name  is  unknown.  This  was  lost  by  a  fatal 
accident;  A  comet  went  whirling  around  the  moon  once,  and  by  its 
extreme  velocity  ignited  the  parchments  containing  the  record  of 
this  illustrious  family :  thus  was  lost  to  succeeding  generations  one 
of  the  brightest  names  that  ever  illuminated  the  solar  system. 
There  is  a  tradition  that  he  declined  even  the  noted  names  of  the 
Grecian  gods,  and  scornfully  rejected  the  honorable  ones  of  Jupiter, 
Saturn,  Neptune,  Mars,  Mercury,  and  many  others,  but  sent  them 
to  the  planets  which  now  bear  these  names.  He  does  not  depend, 
however,  upon  such  trifling  coincidences  for  reputation. 

If  there  are  other  inhabitants  of  his  native  orb,  he  is  sufficiently 
renowned  to  be  universally  known  by  the  unostentatious  cognomen 
of  **  the  man,^"  and  even  at  the  distance  of  two  hundred  and  forty 
thousand  miles,  the  simple  title  ^Hhe  man  in  the  moon"  is  proclaimed 
with  reverence  among  the  nations. 

Having  exhausted  my  knowledge  in  regard  to  my  hero's  name,  I 
will  proceed  to  describe  his  personal  appearance,  hoping  he  will  not 
be  lowered  in  my  hearers'  estimation  by  the  account. 

He  has  a  very  open  countenance,  but  lacks  expression,  and  if  one 
views  him  only  when  turned  full  face,  he  has  anything  but  an  ani- 
mated countenance. 

But  I  can  evade  the  startling  fact  no  longer.  Although  his  fea- 
tures are  good,  he  is  either  all  head  and  face,  or  else  he  possesses 
the  other  attributes  of  the  human  frame  in  a  very  diminutive  form, 
that  is,  according  to  our  physiological  ideas;  but  undoubtedly  cor- 
rect principles  of  this  science  as  believed  by  the  inhabitants  of  Luna 
are  far  superior  to  our  own. 

Well,  we  will  naturally  speak  of  his  position  in  life  next.  He  has 
always  stood  very,  very  high  in  society ;  even  the  greatest  kings  and 
queens  of  earth  have  been  obliged  to  look  up  to  him.     His  character 


308  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETOKIC. 

is  unsurpassable.  If  this  were  not  the  case  he  would  never  have 
retained  his  exalted  position. 

The  record  of  his  age  was  lost  at  the  same  time  that  his  name 
perished.  But  that  he  has  arrived  to  the  years  of  maturity,  you 
will  believe  when  I  inform  you  he  was  a  man  when  my  great-great- 
grandfather was  a  boy. 

Some  upstarts  have  made  faint  attempts  to  prove  his  existence 
false,  but  we  will  (thanks  to  our  early  education)  continue  to  cry, 
"  Long  live  the  man  in  the  moon." 


4.    By  a  Tonng  Lady  of  eighteen. 

This  most  august  character,  who  occupies  so  conspicuous  a  posi- 
tion before  the^yes  of  the  world,  is  unquestionably  the  most  ancient 
personage  of  which  the  inhabitants  of  this  mundane  sphere  have 
any  knowledge.  The  poor  old  Wandering  Jew  should  not  be  men- 
tioned in  the  same  day  with  him,  for  there  is  no  comparison  between 
their  ages.  Before  a  Jew  was  ever  seen  upon  the  earth,  this  old 
man  sat  enthroned  in  the  moon,  and  there  he  will  continue  to  the 
end  of  time.  He  certainly  holds  his  age  remarkably  well,  for,  al- 
though he  is  rather  gray,  his  eye  is  as  bright,  and  his  strength  and 
activity  are  as  great  as  when  he  first  took  possession  of  his  exalted 
position. 

The  "  man  "  is  very  fond  of  travelling,  and  is  easy  and  graceful  in  all 
his  movements,  as  all  will  affirm  who  have  ever  watched  him  sailing 
among  the  clouds  in  a  pleasant  evening.  The  moon  is  his  inseparable 
companion ;  he  carries  it  with  him  wherever  he  goes,  and  takes  the 
best  care  of  it.  Astronomers  tell  us  (and  they  should  know,  for  they 
spend  a  great  deal  of  time  in  observing  his  movements)  that  he 
carries  it  along  at  the  rate  of  54,000  miles  a  day.  He  always  takes 
the  same  route.  The  earth  seems  to  possess  some  peculiar  attraction 
over  him,  and  he  spends  his  whole  time  in  travelling  round  and 
round  our  planet,  though  at  a  great  distance.  I  never  heard  of  his 
desiring  to  come  nearer  except  once,  which  I  will  tell  about  presently. 

As  to  his  family,  we  do  not  know  much.  I  rather  suspect  old 
Mother  Goose  is  one  of  his  near  relations,  for  she  seems  to  make 
frequent  excursions  in  that  direction,  and  is  the  only  one  who  is  able 
to  enlighten  us  much  concerning  his  habits.  If  that  old  "cow"  she 
tells  us  about,  who  once  jumped  over  the  moon,  could  only  find  a 
tongue,  no  doubt  we  might  receive  much  valuable  information  from 
her,  for  she  certainly  had  a  most  favorable  opportunity  of  overlook- 
ing his  movements. 


COMPOSITIONS  ON   IMAGINARY  SUBJECTS.        309 

I  imagine  that  green  cheese  is  the  man's  chief  article  of  diet.  He 
seems  to  have  an  unlimited  supply  of  it,  and  it  has  the  remarkable 
property  of  the  widow's  cruse  of  oil.  It  never  grows  less.  I  sup- 
pose he  very  naturally  gets  tired  sometimes  eating  this  one  thing, 
and  wishes  for  a  greater  variety.  Mother  Goose  tells  us  a  short 
story  about  him,  which  I  think  favors  the  truth  of  this  supposition. 
It  seems  that  one  day  he  became  remarkably  hungry,  and  his  stom- 
ach craved  something  besides  green  cheese ;  so  he  formed  the  deter- 
mination to  come  down  to  the  abode  of  men,  and  get  something 
different.  Very  early  one  fine  morning,  having  so  arranged  matters 
that  the  moon  could  get  along  without  him  for  a  short  time,  he 
started,  and,  riding  upon  a  beam  of  light  at  his  usual  rate,  he  reached 
the  earth  in  about  four  days  and  a  half.  It  was  just  about  noon 
when  he  arrived,  and  after  a  little  difficulty  in  finding  Norwich, 
where  I  suppose  Mother  Goose  resided,  he  sat  down  with  her  to  a 
dinner  of  cold  bean-porridge.  Here  my  feelings  overcome  me.  The 
scene  which  followed  bafiles  description.  Alas,  unfortunate  man, 
that  your  first  experience  here  should  be  so  bitter  !  At  such  a  catas- 
trophe language  fails  us.  Suffice  it  to  say  that,  while  busily  engaged 
in  passing  the  said  porridge  from  his  plate  to  the  cavity  in  the  lower 
part  of  his  face,  which  was  made  for  the  purpose  of  receiving  and 
masticating  food,  he  suddenly  became  conscious  of  a  peculiar  sen- 
sation which  he  had  never  before  experienced ;  in  short,  he  burnt 
his  mouth.  After  this  sad  experience  he  returned  to  his  old  quarters 
in  the  moon,  and  I  have  never  heard  that  he  has  since  felt  any  incli- 
nation to  repeat  his  visit.  This  anecdote  shows  us  very  conclusively 
that  he  must  enjoy  a  very  cool  temperature  generally,  and  from  this 
we  may  draw  the  inference,  as  a  sort  of  corollary,  that  we  never  can 
receive  any  heat  from  the  moon. 

I  never  knew  until  last  evening  that  the  man  was  ever  troubled 
with  modesty.  I  know  of  a  number  of  young  ladies  who,  talking 
about  him,  were  very  anxious  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  his  face,  but  he 
persistently  hid  himself  behind  a  cloud.  This  morning,  however, 
he  dragged  me  out  of  bed  long  before  I  had  the  slightest  inclination 
to  leave  the  pleasant  land  of  Nod. 

His  principal  occupation  at  present  seems  to  consist  in  taking  a 
general  oversight  of  the  earth,  and  keeping  its  waters  in  a  continual 
state  of  agitation. 

Sometimes  he  exerts  a  mysterious  influence  over  poor  mortals, 
which  fr^uently  produces  very  queer  effects.  Occasionally  we 
hear  of  a  poor  young  couple  being  suddenly  moonstruck  while  inno- 
cently enjoying  an  evening  walk  together.  This  is  not  generally  so 
27 


310  COMPOSITION    AND    EHETORIC. 

immediately  fatal  as  sunstroke,  but  frequently  it  causes  the  unfor- 
tunate victims  to  wish  they  were  dead,  and  their  lives  seldom  run 
smoothly  afterward.  I  would  advise  all  young  people  to  beware  of 
"the  man  in  the  moon." 


Example.  —  Subject,  Columbus. 

The  following  composition  was  written  by  a  boy  of  nine.  It  is  given  merely  to 
show  the  facility  for  invention  which  children  very  early  sometimes  exhibit.  The 
boy  was  told  not  to  put  into  the  composition  anything  he  had  read  about  Columbus, 
but  to  make  it  all  up  out  of  his  own  head. 

By  a  Boy  of  nine. 
Columbus  started  from  England  to  discover  America.  He  was  the 
happy  owner  of  a  small  row-boat,  and  had  two  hoop-poles  for  pro- 
pellers. He  took  with  him  a  loaf  of  bread,  a  clam-basket,  and  an 
old  ham-bone,  also  his  brother  Nicodemus.  His  brother  had  a  hat 
that  measured  five  miles  around  the  brim.  He  took  with  him  for 
society  a  pig,  a  cat,  and  a  rat:  for  fear  they  would  quarrel,  he 
placed  the  rat  in  a  sugar-bowl,  the  cat  in  a  salt-box,  and  the  pig  in 
the  cabin.  Columbus's  watch  was  immense  ;  the  hour-hand  was  fifty 
feet  long.  One  day  the  pig  took  a  walk  on  the  deck,  and  got  dizzy 
and  fell  overboard,  and  was  drowned.  He  was  2  years,  3  months 
4  weeks,  5  days,  6  hours,  30  minutes,  and  50  seconds  old  at  the  time 
he  died.  Soon  afterward,  Columbus  discovered  the  Guanahani  or 
Cat  Island,  so  named  on  account  of  the  tremendous  number  of  cats 
peopling  the  island. 

OTHER     SUBJECTS. 

1.  A  Letter  from  Old  Mother  Hubbard  concerning  her 
Dog. 

2.  A  True  and  Reliable  History  of  Jack  Horner. 

3.  The  Early  History  of  the  Fly  that  was  Invited  into 
the  Parlor. 

4.  A  Day  witli  a  Mermaid  Under  the  Sea. 

5.  The  Explorations  of  a  Shark  in  the  Wreck  of  an  East 
Indiaman. 

6.  A  Tour  on  the  Flying  Dutchman.  ^ 

7.  An  Involuntary  Descent  into  a  Volcano. 

8.  Our  First  Woman-President 


COMPOSITIONS    JN  IMAGINARY  SUBJECTS.         311 

9.  The   Chinaman's   First   Impressions   of   an   Italian 
Opera, 

10.  Young   America   Transported   back   One   Hundred 
Years. 

11.  When  My  Ship  Comes  in. 

12.  Why? 

13.  Among  the  Tigers. 

14.  Captured  by  a  Crocodile. 

15.  Moonlight  Revery. 

16.  Whispers  from  the  Pines. 

17.  What  I  Saw  in  a  Dream. 

18.  My  Opposite  Neighbor. 

19.  Wrecked  on  an  Iceberg. 

20.  Set  Adrift  in  Mid-Ocean. 

21.  A  Sojourn  on  a  Desert  Isle. 

22.  The  Man  who  Never  Forgot. 

23.  Prove  that  the  Moon  is  not  made  of  Green  Cheese, 

24.  Letter  to  the  Man  in  the  Moon. 

25.  Description  of  a  Journey  in  a  Balloon. 

26.  A  Visit  to  the  Mermaids  in  their  Coral  Groves. 

27.  What  I  Heard  and  Saw .  when  I  used  my  Invisible 
Ring. 

28.  A  Day  with  Adam  and  Eve  in  Eden. 

29.  A  Description  of  the  First  Day  after  Adam  and  Eve 
left  Eden. 

30.  The  Good  Fairy,  and  what  She  Did. 

31.  The  Bad  Fairy,  and  what  He  Did. 

32.  What  would  have  Happened,  if  Columbus  had  not 
Discovered  America? 

33.  What  would   have  been  the  Condition  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa,  if  America  had  not  been  Discovered  ? 

34.  Do   Circumstances   make   Great  Men,  or   do   Great 
Men  make  Circumstances  ? 

35.  Wq^ld  it  be  an  Advantage  or  a  Disadvantage,  if  the 
Philosopher's  Stone  should  be  Discovered? 

36.  What  would  be  the  Result,  if  the  Nations  were  sud- 


312  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

denly  to  find  themselves  Speaking  and  Reading  but  One 
Language  ? 

37.  A  Year  of  Total  Darkness. 

38.  A  Year  which  should  be  All  Day. 

39.  One  Man's  Life  Prolonged  to  an  Unusual  Length, 
say  500  or  1000  Years. 

40.  Man  Endowed  with  the  Power  of  Flight. 

41.  One  Man  in  the  Possession  of  the  Fountain  of  Per- 
petual Youth. 


CHAPTER  V. 
Personal  Narratives. 

Another  class  of  exercises,  well  suited  to  develop  invention,  as  well  as  to  break  up 
the  stiff  formality  to  whicli  beginners  are  liable,  is  that  of  Personal  Narratives. 
These  narratives  may  either  be  real,  giving  an  account  of  something  which  the  writer 
has  experienced,  such  as  an  excursion,  a  trip  into  the  country,  and  the  like ;  or  they 
may  be  fictitious,  giving  an  account  of  some  imaginary  adventure.  These  narratives, 
whether  real  or  fictitious,  should  be  in  the  first  person,  and  the  writers  should  be 
encouraged  to  give  the  narrative,  when  practicable,  something  of  the  dramatic  form, 
introducing  dialogue,  telling  what  was  said  by  the  several  parties  introduced.  Some 
examples  will  be  given,  as  the  best  way  of  illustrating  what  is  meant.  They  are  from 
writers  of  various  degrees  of  maturity. 

Examples.  —  Subject,  How  I  Spent  my  Vacation. 

1,    By  a  Boy  of  thirteen, 

The  vacation  was  the  third  week  in  April,  and  I  enjoyed  it  very 
much.  The  greatest  fault  I  had  to  find  with  it  was  that  it  was  too 
short.  Only  to  think  of  it !  We  had  been  cooped  up  in  boarding- 
school  ever  since  Christmas,  and  then  to  have  but  one  short  week  to 
ourselves !  But  the  school  broke  up  on  Friday,  and  we  did  not  have 
to  return  until  Monday  of  the  week  following  vacation,  so  that  we 
had  several  days  over  the  exact  week,  and  we  all  made  the  most  of 
every  minute.  At  least,  I  did  for  one.  It  seemed  as  if  the  locomo- 
tive could  not  take  me  fast  enough,  although  it  did  go  thirty  miles 
an  hour.  My  wishes  went  faster  than  old  Mr.  Steam,  and  in  my 
thoughts  I  was  home  before  I  started.  Why  don't  they  get  some 
machine  to  go  by  telegraph,  for  boys  that  are  in  a  hurry  to  go  home 
from  boarding-school?  All  schoolboys,  I'm  sure,  would  take  the 
lightning  train.  Well,  I  reached  the  station  at  last,  and  there  stood 
Bob,  the  driver,  smiling  as  a  basket  of  chips,  with  old  Sorrel  and  the 
light  wagon,  ready  to  whirl  us  home ;  and  as  soon  as  the  train  was 
27*  813 


314  COMPOSITION    AND    BHETORIC. 

off,  we  jumped  into  the  wagon,  and  in  about  ten  minutes,  there  we 
were  at  the  door !  I  don't  think  I  '11  tell  you  what  was  the  first 
thing  done  when  I  met  mother  and  sister  Julia,  because  only  girls 
talk  about  such  things.  But  after  that  was  over,  what  do  you  think 
was  the  next  thing  I  did  ?  Well,  you  '11  say  I  went  with  brother 
Ben  to  see  the  new  colt.  No,  you  are  out  there.  Well,  then,  you 
guess  we  went  to  the  barn-yard  to  see  the  fine  brood  of  chickens 
that  Tom  had  been  writing  about.  Wrong  again.  Well,  I  '11  tell 
you.  You  see,  I  had  not  been  home  since  Christmas,  and  during 
that  time  an  important  young  stranger  had  made  his  appearance  in 
the  house,  and  I  Avas  anxious  to  see  those  cunning  bright  eyes  and 
funny  little  pink  toes  that  sister  Julia  had  been  writing  about  in  her 
letters,  and  my  first  visit  was  made  to  the  cradle  in  mother's  room. 
And,  sure  enough,  there  he  was,  the  dearest  little  brother  that  any 
schoolboy  could  wish  to  see.  But  I  have  reached  the  end  of  my 
paper,  and  have  not  yet  got  through  the  first  day  of  my  vacation. 
So  you  will  have  to  guess  the  rest.  Only,  I  had  a  real  good  time  and 
lots  of  fun.  But  I  was  right  glad  to  see  the  boys  again  when  school 
reopened. 

2.    Also  by  a  Boy. 

First,  I  spent  it,  that  is,  I  spent  every  particle  of  it,  so  that  when 
I  arrived  back  here  at  Trenton,  I  had  not  a  large  enough  piece  left 
to  put  out  at  interest,  but  I  had  to  go  to  work  to  earn  more.  As  to 
the  mode  of  spending  it,  I  spent  part  in  travel,  part  in  play,  and  the 
third  part  in  work.  As  I  am  studying  book-keeping,  I  suppose  you 
would  like  to  have  a  bill  of  particulars. 

Commenced  business  this  day,  April  9th,  1870,  with  eight  days  in 
hand  as  paid-up  capital. 

Set  out  from  Trenton  at  quarter  of  nine,  arrived  at  Lambertville, 
changed  cars  for  Flemington,  at  which  place  I  arrived  at  eleven 
o'clock,  took  a  stroll  through  the  town,  saw  quite  a  number  of 
things,  returned  to  the  depot  in  time  for  the  train,  and  was  soon 
travelling  in  the  direction  of  Somerville.  Arriving  at  that  place, 
went  through  the  same  performances  as  at  Flemington,  and  at  half- 
past  two  was  again  travelling  at  the  fast  rate  of  four  miles  an  hour, 
and  arrived  at  my  destination  at  five  o'clock.  And  now  for  my 
travels  back  to  Trenton.  Reverse  this,  minus  a  few  jokes,  plus  a 
large  quantity  of  rain,  and  you  have  the  items  for  which  I  gave  /y 
of  my  vacation. 

Play,  the  next  item,  or,  in  other  words,  Sundries,  to  include  rest, 
sleep,  and  play,  which  last  consisted  in  gathering  wild  flowers,  pull- 


PERSONAL.    NARRATIVES.  316 

ing  up  stones  to  find  shells,  and  best  of  all,  hunting  for  salamanders 
through  the  marsh  without  getting  my  feet  wet.  The  price  of  this 
item  was  ||  of  my  vacation. 

Next  item  work,  for  which  I  gave  |f  of  my  vacation. 

These  are  all  the  items  that  are  necessary  in  journalizing  the 
transaction. 

3.    By  a  Miss  of  twelve. 

Here  it  is — the  very  first  week  of  school,  and  we  have  to  write  a 
composition!  Our  teacher  says  we  must  write  about  "howl  spent 
my  vacation."  I  spent  mine  just  as  I  often  spend  my  money,  and 
I  have  no  good  of  it  after  it  is  all  gone. 

I  thought  that  we  would  go  away  just  as  soon  as  school  broke  up, 
and  I  told  all  the  girls  that  they  would  not  see  me  again  until  after 
vacation  was  over  ;  but  we  did  not  go  for  ever  so  long.  My  Ma  and 
my  big  sisters  did  not  get  all  of  their  dresses  finished  in  time.  They 
had  been  getting  ready,  it  seems  to  me,  for  a  year,  and  they  had 
seamstresses  and  sewing-machines  in  the  house  for  I  don't  know  how 
long.  But  it  does  take  so  long  now  to  make  anything,  when  ladies' 
dresses,  and  little  girls'  too,  are  puffed,  and  ruffled,  and  tucked  so 
much,  to  say  nothing  of  double  skirts  and  panniers.  How  I  did 
wish  they  would  go  and  take  me  to  the  country  with  just  my  old 
school-frocks !  Of  course,  my  young-lady  sisters  thought  I  was  a 
foolish  little  girl,  and  I  suppose  I  was ;  but  then  I  know  what  I  want. 
After  they  were  all  ready  to  go,  it  was  so  late  in  the  season  that  when 
we  arrived  at  Saratoga,  all  the  good  rooms  were  taken,  and  we  had 
to  be  put  up  at  the  top  of  the  house  in  a  little  bit  of  a  hot  room.  There 
was  no  place  to  put  our  beautiful  new  dresses,  or  to  dress  ourselves 
in.  I  did  not  care  so  much  for  that ;  but  my  sisters  were  real  cross, 
for  they  like  to  see  themselves  when  they  dress,  and  not  to  have  a 
little  bit  of  a  looking-glass  that  was  not  much  bigger  than  your  face. 
I  had  to  be  dressed  up  so  much,  while  we  stayed  at  Saratoga,  that  I 
could  not  play  and  run  about  as  I  wanted  to,  for  Ma  said  I  would 
spoil  my  new  dresses  that  cost  so  much  money,  and  had  so  much 
work  on  them.  After  we  left  Saratoga  we  were  to  visit  an  aunt  of 
my  father's,  who  lives  in  the  real  country.  I  was  so  glad  when  I 
heard  that !  for  I  was  sure  that  I  would  have  some  fun  there.  It 
was  a  large  house,  and  the  orchards  and  fields  and  everything  were 
ever  so  nice ;  but  it  rained  almost  all  the  time  we  had  to  stay  there, 
and  I  could  not  be  out  of  doors  hardly  any.  If  I  had  had  real  thick 
boots,  and  calico  dresses,  I  might  have  gone  out  some  days  when  it 
did  not  rain ;  but  the  ground  was  wet,  and  I  had  to  stay  in  the  house 


316  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

almost  all  the  time :  so  I  did  not  have  much  more  fun  at  the  farm 
than  I  did  at  Saratoga. 

We  reached  home  only  the  day  before  school  began,  and  that  makes 
me  feel  as  if  I  had  spent  my  vacation  and  had  no  good  of  it. 

4.    By  a  Miss  of  thirteen. 

Well,  it  was  vacation  at  last.  I  thought  it  would  never  come.  I 
was  going  down  to  Delaware  County  to  spend  a  week  with  Aunt 
Maria.  I  tnought  it  would  be  fine  fun  to  travel  by  myself,  but  father 
hunted  up  a  solemn  old  minister,  who  engaged  to  see  me  safely  half- 
way there,  and  into  the  right  path  for  reaching  my  destination.  So 
he  called  for  me,  and  off  we  trotted  as  gay  as  two  old  grasshoppers. 
Mr.  Featherstone  was  not  half  so  solemn  inside  as  he  was  out,  and 
by  the  time  we  reached  the  depot  I  felt  quite  pleased  with  him.  He 
bought  the  tickets  and  checked  the  baggage,  and  when  we  reached 
the  junction,  where  I  changed  cars  —  but  he  went  on  —  he  gave  me 
my  ticket  and  a  check,  and  wished  me  good-by. 

I  stuck  my  finger  through  the  leather  loop  of  the  check,  and  held 
my  ticket  as  tight  as  a  vice,  seated  myself  in  the  train,  and  was  soon 
whisking  away  at  a  rapid  rate.  At  last  the  cars  stopped  at  my  sta- 
tion, and  out  I  jumped,  but  never  a  sign  of  a  carriage  of  any  descrip- 
tion awaited  my  coming,  and  it  slowly  dawned  on  my  benighted 
vision  that  they  had  made  a  mistake.  However,  there  I  was,  and 
there  I  must  be.  So  off  I  started  for  the  depot-master,  keeping  one 
eye  roving  around  in  search  of  my  baggage,  but  it  did  not  appear. 
However,  the  man  did,  and  I  thrust  my  check  in  his  face,  and  de- 
manded my  baggage.  "Here,  Miss,"  he  answered,  and  dragged  for- 
ward a  rusty  old  valise,  marked  M.  R.  F.  Horror  of  horrors !  the 
old  minister  had  made  a  mistake,  and  there  was  my  new  blue-silk 
dress  whisking  off  to  Iowa  with  him,  and  here  was  I  with  his  old 
shirts  and  pantaloons,  and  sermons.  Catch  me  making  such  a  mis- 
take as  that!  Thought  I  couldn't  travel  alone,  did  he?  Well,  I 
wouldn't  have  changed  baggage  with  an  old  minister,  anyhow.  Pre- 
cious lot  of  good  all  my  bows  and  ruffles  will  do  him !  I  felt  like 
making  a  bonfire  of  all  his  sermons,  and  him  too. 

But  it  was  of  no  use  to  scold  the  depot-master.  He  soon  compre- 
hended the  joke,  and  almost  laughed  himself  into  convulsions. 

After  that,  he  said  he  would  get  me  a  wagon  and  drive  me  over. 
Just  then  I  felt  in  my  pocket  for  my  portemonnaie.  It  was  not 
there,  and  then  flashed  across  my  mind  a  distinct  notion  of  my 
putting  it  down  by  my  plate  while  I  ate  my  breakfast.     I  tried  to 


PERSONAL    NARRATIVES.  317 

explain  matters  to  the  man,  but  he  only  laughed  the  harder.  At  last, 
a  nice-looking  young  gentleman,  with  a  black  moustache,  came  along 
in  a  light  wagon,  and  very  kindly  took  me  over  to  Aunt  Maria's. 

He  was  very  kind,  for  he  telegraphed  to  Mr.  Featherstone  about 
my  baggage,  and  sent  his  on  to  him.  When  we  reached  aunt's  we 
found  them  just  starting  to  meet  the  next  train. 

Well,  I  had  a  good  time,  after  all.  Aunt  Maria  shortened  a  nice 
gingham  wrapper  for  me  to  wear.  My  baggage  never  came  until 
the  day  before  I  left  for  home  ;  but  Mr.  Frank  Linden,  the  young 
man  with  the  black  moustache,  took  me  back,  so  there  were  no  more 
mistakes. 


Example.— Subject,  A  Trip  by  Rail. 

The  following  narrative  is  a  specimen  of  the  manner  in  which  one  may  be  sup- 
posed to  write  who  is  more  mature,  and  has  had  more  experience  in  writing.  It  is 
intended  to  show  how  many  instructive  things  one  may  see  in  the  course  of  an  hour's 
travel  by  railroad  in  any  direction,  or  at  any  hour  of  the  day,  if  he  will  only  keep  his 
eyes  open,  and  let  his  mind  work  upon  what  he  sees.  Even  though  he  goes  over  the 
same  route  every  day  in  the  year,  he  may  every  day  see  something  new.  The  writer 
describes  a  ride  in  the  cars  from  Philadelphia  to  Trenton. 


By  an  Adult. 

The  last  time  I  took  my  seat  in  the  cars  at  the  Kensington  depot, 
all  the  passengers  were  startled  by  a  loud  and  angry  altercation  in 
the  adjoining  car.  Fears  of  personal  violence,  perhaps  of  homicide, 
began  to  be  excited.  A  young  man,  dressed  as  a  gentleman,  had 
forced  his  way  rudely  into  the  car  known  as  the  "Ladies'  Car,"  and 
insisted  on  remaining  there,  though  not  accompanied  by  a  lady.  He 
said,  on  presenting  himself  at  the  entrance,  that  he  had  a  lady  in 
company  who  was  a  little  behind  him,  and  having  uttered  this  delib- 
erate falsehood  for  the  purpose  of  tricking  the  doorkeeper,  coolly 
walked  in  and  took  a  seat.  The  official,  faithful  to  his  trust,  and 
finding  himself  deceived,  followed  the  man  into  the  car,  acquainted 
him  civilly  with  the  positive  nature  of  the  orders  under  which  the 
conductors  acted,  and  requested  him  to  leave  the  car.  Then  fol- 
lowed the  loud  bluster  and  bravado  which  had  attracted  the  attention 
of  even  those  in  the  next  car.  He  never  would  leave  the  car  alive, 
hevee!  "Just  try  to  put  me  out,  if  you  dare  !    I 'd  like  to  see  you  raise 

21 


31&  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

your  hand  on  me.  You  've  mistaken  your  man  this  time !  "  and  so  on, 
and  so  on,  the  bully  all  the  while  talking  louder,  and  with  more  vio- 
lent expressions,  until  he  had  worked  himself  up  into  quite  a  fury. 
The  well-trained  and  civil  official  used  no  threats,  called  the  man  no 
hard  names,  did  not  taunt  him  with  his  impudent  and  ungentlemanly 
falsehood,  but  insisted  on  his  vacating  the  seat  in  accordance  with 
the  regulations  of  the  road.  It  was  amusing  to  see  how  the  courage 
of  the  vaporous  poltroon  oozed  out  before  the  steady  and  cool  per- 
sistence of  the  doorkeeper,  especially  when  other  officials  began  to 
appear  in  the  background,  adequate  in  numbers  to  carry  into  effect 
the  orders  under  which  they  were  acting.  So,  in  less  than  two 
minutes  after  his  threats  of  violence  and  loud-mouthed  avowal  that 
he  would  never,  never,  never  leave  the  car  alive,  the  man  quietly 
walked  off  like  a  whipped  cur,  amid  the  half-restrained  titter  of  the 
other  passengers. 

Soon  after  emerging  from  the  depot,  my  attention  was  attracted  to 
another  young  man  standing  on  the  front  platform.  He  was  just 
on  the  dividing  line  between  youth  and  manhood,  and  everything  in 
his  appearance  and  manner  indicated  that  he  was  breaking  away 
from  the  restraints  of  home  and  school,  and  about  to  throw  himself 
into  the  current  of  gayety  and  dissipation.  I  happened  to  know 
something  of  his  history  and  of  his  present  surroundings,  and  I  could 
not  but  tremble  to  look  forward  a  few  years  into  his  probable  future. 
The  jaunty  air  in  which  he  wore  his  cap  awry,  as  if  ashamed  to  be 
thought  precise,  the  affected  nonchalance  with  which  he  puffed  out 
the  curling  smoke  from  the  cigar  that  was  evidently  sickening  him, 
the  jockeying  and  slang  expressions  that  occasionally  fell  from  his 
lips,  all  so  out  of  keeping  with  the  staid  and  decorous  country-home 
in  which  he  had  been  nurtured,  could  not  fail  to  awaken  anxiety  in 
the  mind  of  any  one  who  observed  him,  and  who  had  much  experi- 
ence of  the  way  in  which  young  men  usually  begin  a  downward 
course.  This  youth  has  before  his  mind  some  false  ideal  that  is  lead- 
ing him  to  ruin.  Some  city  swell  has  struck  his  fancy,  and  he  is 
devoting  his  energies  to  making  a  poor  imitation  of  the  sorry  article. 
How  I  pity  him !  how  my  heart  aches  for  his  mother  !  More  young 
men  are  led  astray  by  bad  taste,  by  their  admiration  of  false  stand- 
ards, than  by  any  inherent  bad  inclination.  Fancy  ruins  more  than 
passion  does.  Such,  at  least,  is  my  conviction,  the  result  of  a  pretty 
large  acquaintance  with  young  men. 

In  railway  travel,  I  am  often  led  to  wondei:  what  is  the  history  of 
the  newsboys  who  supply  us  with  newspapers  and  magazines.  If  I 
am  not  mistaken,  there  is  a  gradual  improvement  in  the  character 


PEESONAL    NAEEATIVES.  319 

of  these  young  traders.  They  do  not  seem  to  me  so  reckless  as  they 
used  to  be,  years  ago.  Their  business  makes  them  sharp.  But  gen- 
erally I  find  them  honest  and  civil.  Taking  a  fancy,  this  morning,  to 
the  looks  of  one  who  sold  me  the  "Press,"  I  thought  I  would  make 
the  experiment,  in  a  very  small  way,  to  see  what  the  boy  was  made 
of.  So,  having  finished  reading  my  paper,  and  seeing  his  stock 
nearly  exhausted,  as  he  was  passing  my  seat  industriously  plying 
his  trade,  I  made  him  an  offer  of  my  copy.  He  looked  at  me  very 
curiously  for  a  moment,  as  if  not  comprehending  my  meaning,  and 
when  at  length  he  understood  that  I  meant  to  give  him  the  paper, 
which  an  hour  before  I  had  bought  of  him,  his  face  beamed  all  over 
with  pleasure,  and  there  was  no  mistaking  the  genuineness  of  his 
**  Thank  you,  sir."  The  gentleman  in  front  of  me,  catching  the  idea, 
handed  the  boy,  in  like  manner,  his  paper,  and  a  lady  on  the  other 
side  of  the  car  gave  the  boy  hers.  At  each  successive  addition  to 
his  stock,  it  was  worth  to  us  many  times  the  five  cents  into  which  the 
boy  presently  coined  it,  to  see  the  evidences  of  good  feeling  and  good 
breeding  which  it  called  out  from  him.  I  am  almost  sure  that  the  boy 
has  a  pleasant  home  and  a  good  mother,  I  could  not  but  feel  as  if  I 
would  like  to  know  something  of  his  history,  outside  of  his  car-life 

Every  regular  traveller  over  the  southern  end  of  the  road  between 
Philadelphia  and  New  York,  is  familiar  with  the  "Maple-candy 
Man."  No  vendor  of  articles  upon  the  cars  is  such  a  general  favor- 
ite. I  had  missed  him  for  several  months.  What  had  become  of 
him,  no  one  seemed  to  know.  The  newsboys  had  his  candy  for  sale, 
but  it  seemed  somehow  not  to  have  the  same  attractions  as  when 
brought  round  in  that  quaint  mahogany  box,  and  offered  with  the 
good-natured  persuasions  of  the  original  seller.  There  was  on  this 
occasion  a  general  brightening  up  of  faces  as  the  "  candy-man  " 
once  more  made  his  appearance,  and  very  few  in  the  cars  allowed 
him  to  pass  without  making  an  investment.  Circumstances  having 
led  me  some  years  ago  to  make  the  acquaintance  of  this  man,  I  took 
the  liberty  to  ask  him  the  cause  of  his  disappearance  for  the  last 
few  months  from  the  scene  of  his  daily  operations.  The  narrative 
which  he  gave  me  was  not  long,  but  it  was  full  of  significance.  By 
his  industry,  tact,  and  economy,  he  had,  in  his  humble  business  of 
making  and  selling  maple-candy,  not  only  supported  comfortably  his 
family,  but  had  laid  up  quite  a  snug  little  sum  of  money.  Last  De- 
cember he  had  the  misfortune  to  make  five  hundred  dollars  by  a 
successful  operation  in  "  oil  "  stock.  Said  he :  "  It  set  me  crazy  ;  I 
quit  my  business  and  went  to  the  oil  regions.  I  staid  there  till  I 
had  found  the  bottom  of  six  thousand  five  hundred  dollars  of  hard- 


320  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

earned  money,  and  now  I  have  come  back,  a  wiser  man,  to  replace 
by  patient  toil  what  I  so  rashly  threw  away."  How  many  histories 
are  recorded  in  this  one  example  ! 

On  the  opposite  side  of  the  car  from  me  sat  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished jurists  of  the  land,  absorbed  in  the  newspaper.  Not  far 
from  Bristol,  as  we  were  passing  Landreth's  Seed-farm,  the  Chan- 
cellor dropped  his  paper,  and  coming  over  to  where  I  sat,  tapped  me 
somewhat  quickly  on  the  arm,  and  said,  pointing  out  of  the  window, 
"Do  you  see  that?" 

"What?" 

"That  beautiful  tree:  I  never  pass  this  way,  without  stopping  to 
admire  it." 

Sure  enough,  there  in  the  middle  of  the  field,  was  a  stately  tree, 
standing  entirely  alone,  not  so  large  or  stately  as  many  other  trees 
that  I  had  seen ;  but  ample  in  its  proportions,  and  in  every  branch, 
limb,  and  leaf  a  picture  of  perfect  vegetable  health.  More  than  all, 
there  was  an  individuality  about  this  tree,  as  marked  as  that  of  a 
human  being,  and  I  found  it  was  this  quality  especially  that  had 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  Chancellor.  He  said  he  had  his  tree 
acquaintances  in  almost  every  neighborhood  that  he  visited  in  mak- 
ing his  circuits,  and  he  went  on  to  describe  to  me  particular  trees 
that  he  had  known,  some  of  them  for  thirty  and  forty  years.  Each 
of  these,  he  said,  seemed  to  him  a  personal  friend,  and  he  never 
went  into  the  neighborhood  of  any  of  them  without  going  out  and 
looking  at  it.  It  was  quite  a  new  idea  to  me,  this  numbering 
particular  trees,  here  and  there  over  the  country,  as  among  one's 
personal  acquaintances  and  friends.  I  had  often,  always,  indeed, 
admired  trees  in  the  mass,  as  a  forest,  woods,  or  copse ;  but^  never 
before  had  recognized  that  marked  individuality  which  a  tree  ac- 
quires when  standing  out  by  itself,  alone  in  the  midst  of  a  large 
field.  This  quality  it  is  which  gives  them  their  singular  power  of 
human  companionship. 

About  half  a  mile  out  from  Morrisville,  every  traveller  on  that 
road  must  have  observed  a  low,  unsightly  pond  or  marsh.  The 
water  is  stagnant  and  discolored,  and  looks  as  though  it  might  be 
reeking  with  noisome  and  pestilential  vapors.  A  more  forbidding 
object  is  not  to  be  seen  between  Philadelphia  and  Trenton.  Yet  from 
out  the  green  slime  of  that  vile  morass.  Nature  sends  forth  some  of 
her  loveliest  children  to  greet  the  sun.  I  think  I  have  never  seen 
lilies  of  such  absolute  purity,  such  almost  dazzling  whiteness,  as 
those  which  bloom  on  the  bosom  of  this  green  and  slimy  pool.  Not 
more  remarkable  than  this  vegetable  phenomenon  is  that  wonderful 


PERSONAL    NARRATIVES.  321 

work  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  under  whose  quickening  influences  we  some- 
times see  an  angel-lily  blooming  into  heavenly  purity  and  sweetness 
in  the  very  lowest  stratum  of  human  society,  among  the  vilest  com- 
panionship of  courts  and  alleys  reeking  with  moral  pestilence. 

OTHEK    STJBJECTS. 

1.  What  I  Saw  this  Morning,  on  the  Way  to  School. 

2.  An  Account  of  a  Day  spent  in  the  Country  by  One 
living  in  the  City. 

3.  An  Account  of  a  Day  spent  in  the  City  by  One  living 
in  the  Country. 

4.  A  Ride  in  the  Street  Car. 

5.  What  we  Did  at  our  Picnic. 

6.  A  Journey  to  the  Delaware  Water  Gap.* 

7.  A  Journey  through  the  State  of  Pennsylvania. 

8.  A  Ride  from  the  Peaks  of  Otter  to  the  Natural  Bridge 
in  Virginia. 

9.  Ascent  of  Mount  Washington. 

10.  A  sail  up  the  Hudson. 

11.  A  Visit  to  a  Coal  Mine. 

12.  An  Excursion  among  the  Virginia  Springs. 

13.  A  Fishing  Excursion. 

14.  Our  Nutting  Party. 

15.  A  Boating  Excursion. 

16.  A  May-day  Party. 

17.  A  Moonlight  Walk  at  the  Sea-side. 

*  Subjects  of  this  kind  will  be  varied,  of  course,  according  to  the  experience 
of  the  writer.  The  student  should  narrate  the  occurrences  of  some  journey  which 
he  has  actually  made. 


28 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Descriptions. 

After  sufficient  practice  in  writing  personal  narratives,  the  student 
fchould  give  attention  to  writing  descriptions.  In  the  practice  of 
many  teachers,  descriptive  compositions  precede  narratives ;  but  I 
doubt  the  propriety  of  such  a  course.  Description  is  in  itself  more 
difl&cult  than  narration,  and  it  requires  more  matured  habits  of 
observation  and  expression.  To  describe  well  is  indeed  a  rare 
attainment. 

Taking  Notes*  —  An  essential  condition  to  success  in  describing  is  the  practice 
of  noting  down  on  the  spot  the  things  to  be  described.  In  personal  narrative,  we  can 
trust  in  good  measure  to  recollection.  We  usually  remember  with  sufficient  vividness 
transactions  in  which  we  have  been  ourselves  the  actors.  But  it  is  different  in  descrip- 
tion. Here,  if  we  wish  to  succeed,  and  to  give  to  others  a  picture  which  will  be  thor- 
oughly true  and  fresh,  and  which  will  bring  up  to  their  minds  a  scene  exactly  as  it  pr*. 
sented  itself  to  ours,  we  must  stand  before  it,  pencil  in  hand,  and  note  down  its  features 
while  the  eye  is  actually  on  them.  This  taking  of  notes  on  the  spot,  while  in  the  very 
act  of  observing,  is  as  important  to  one  who  would  be  a  good  describer,  as  is  out-door 
sketching  to  a  landscape  painter.  In  both  cases  the  picture  must  be  worked  up  by 
subsequent  labor  and  art.  But  the  materials  must  be  gathered  while  the  original  seen.© 
is  actually  before  the  eyes.  Thus  only,  in  cither  case,  will  the  student  learn  to  bo 
accurate.    Thus  only  will  his  pictures  acquire  freshness  and  life. 

Description  and  Narration.  —  Often,  as  in  works  of  history  and  of  fiction, 
that  which  is  written  is  partly  narrative  and  partly  descriptive.  In  the  account  of 
a  battle,  for  instance,  a  description  of  the  place  is  essential  to  an  understanding  of 
the  transaction,  and  the  writer  who  wishes  to  tell  the  story  intelligently  visits  the 
spot,  if  possible,  and  takes  note,  while  there,  of  every  point  which  is  to  be  included 
in  his  narrative.  No  man  could  give  an  intelligent  account  of  the  battle  of  Gettysburg, 
for  instance,  who  had  not  himself  stood  on  Cemetery  Hill,  and  read  the  story  with  that 
curious  panorama  of  hills  before  him,  the  description  of  which  forms  a  necessary  part 
of  the  narrative  of  the  battle. 

Xjxample  of  Novelists. —  Many  novelists  observe  this  rule  in  regard  to  the 
localities  involved  in  the  plot  of  their  story.  Sir  Walter  Scott  laid  the  scenes  of  his 
stories  in  places  with  which  he  had  been  personally  familiar  from  boyhood ;  and  if 
in  any  instance  he  was  in  doubt  about  a  single  feature  of  the  landscape  described, 
he  verified  it  by  actual  observation.  It  is  recorded  of  him  that  he  once  rode  forty  or 
fifty  miles  on  horseback  to  make  sure  of  the  correctness  of  one  of  his  descriptions. 

822 


DESCRIPTIONS.  323 

Selection  Necessary.  —  Another  condition  to  success  in  description  is  to 
make  a  judicious  selection  of  the  points  to  be  described.  Stand  where  we  will,  the 
things  to  be  seen  are  numberless  ;  we  cannot  undertake  to  name  even,  much  less  to 
describe,  all  that  we  see.  The  writer  should  first  settle  in  his  own  mind  the  object 
of  his  essay.  The  points  selected  will  vary  according  as  he  writes  for  information, 
for  amusement,  for  the  satisfying  of  a  sense  of  the  beautiful,  and  the  like.  In  making 
observations  prepai-atory  to  the  description,  it  will  be  found  best  not  to  observe  any 
particular  order,  at  the  time,  but  to  put  things  down  just  as  the  eye  meets  them, 
reserving  the  grouping  to  the  final  process  of  finishing  up. 

Avoid  Generalities.  —  Another  condition  is  that  we  particularize.  Young 
writers  are  apt  to  deal  in  easy  generalities,  to  speak  of  trees  —  not  of  some  one  tree 
which  they  know  something  about ;  of  gardens,  not  of  that  particular  garden  which 
Is  before  their  eyes ;  of  landscapes  in  general,  not  of  that  particular  landscape  which 
is  spread  out  before  them.  Descriptions  should  deal  with  the  concx-ete,  not  with 
the  abstract ;  with  particulars,  not  with  generals. 

Sulijects.  —  Subjects  for  description  exist  in  the  greatest  abundance.  Every 
man,  woman,  or  child  that  one  is  acquainted  with,  every  domestic  animal,  every 
house,  every  field,  every  bridge  or  stream,  may  form  a  subject  for  description ;  and 
the  more  familiar  the  object,  the  better,  especially  for  elementary  exercises. 

Describing  wliat  "we  liave  not  Seen. — We  are  required  sometimes  to 
describe  objects  with  which  we  have  become  acquainted  by  reading  and  study,  instead 
of  observation.  We  may,  for  instance,  be  required  to  describe  the  Emperor  Napoleon, 
or  ancient  Rome,  or  the  Sandwich  Islands,  or  the  crater  of  Vesuvius,  none  of  which  we 
have  seen.  In  such  cases  wo  should  observe  as  nearly  as  possible  the  suggestions  already 
made.  In  reading  alsout  the  object,  we  should  make  notes  of  the  several  points  which 
eeem  suitable  to  the  purpose ;  and  after  thus  collecting  the  materials,  we  should  com- 
bine them  in  some  orderly  arrangement,  as  we  would  in  describing  what  we  have  seen. 

In  the  ordinary  uses  of  life,  description  and  narrative  very  commonly  and  properly 
go  together.  But  in  school  exercises,  for  the  purpose  of  cultivating  the  art  of  descrip- 
tion, it  is  well  occasionally  to  practise  description  apart  from  narrative,  to  assign  as 
the  subject  for  an  essay  the  description  of  some  specific  person,  place,  scene,  or  thing. 

Examples  are  given  of  both  kinds  of  descriptions,  and  of  various  degrees  of  ma- 
turity. 

Example. — Subject,  Our  Cat  and  the  Rabbit. 

ITotes. 
Time — May  29th,  afternoon. 
Place  —  our  back  parlor  and  yard. 
Mother  and  I  were  together  reading. 
I    The  rabbit  of  a  dark,  mottled  brown. 
Eating  grass  —  his  ears  —  his  eyes  —  the  way  he  jumped. 
The  cat — his  eyes  and  tail  —  crouching  —  afraid  to  attack. 
What  became  of  Bunny. 

Goldy's  cowardice.  • 

Our  excitement  —  throwing  stones — no  use. 
(N.  B.  —  These  notes  were  jotted  down  after  the  adventure  was  over,  not  at  th« 
actual  time  of  the  occurrence.) 

Description.    By  a  Boy. 
One  afternoon  in  May,  as  mother  and  I  were  in  the  back  parlor, 
reading,  we  saw,  all  at  once,  in  the  grass-plot  back  of  the  house, 


324  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORIC. 

only  a  few  feet  from  where  we  were  sitting,  a  dear  little  wild  rabbit. 
The  grass  was  rather  high,  and  he  was  busy  as  a  bee,  biting  oflF  the 
tops,  which  were  most  inviting.  He  seemed  to  be  quite  particular 
in  his  fancies,  picking  those  blades  which  looked  most  fresh  and 
tender.  We  sat  still  and  watched  him  for  some  time,  with  the 
greatest  curiosity,  as  we  could  see  him  perfectly.  After  nibbling 
awhile,  he  would  stop,  and  stand  perfectly  still,  as  if  watching 
against  surprise. 

His  eyes  were  not,  like  those  of  the  cat  or  dog,  in  the  front  of  his 
face,  and  looking  forward,  but  on  the  sides  of  his  head,  so  that  he 
could  look  right  and  left  without  stirring;  in  fact,  they  stuck  out 
beyond  the  rest  of  his  head,  so  that  probably  he  could  see  in  every 
direction  without  turning.  This  may  be  to  enable  him  better  to  pro- 
tect himself,  as  he  cannot  fight,  and  his  only  chance  of  escape  is  by 
flight. 

I  noticed  that  he  had  a  peculiar  way  of  sitting  upon  his  haunches, 
with  his  body  and  head  erect,  and  his  forefeet  entirely  free.  I  could 
not  see  whether  or  not  he  used  his  forefeet  as  we  do  our  hands,  for 
taking  hold  of  the  grass  and  other  things,  but  I  think  he  did.  It 
had  that  appearance.  His  mode  of  running,  also,  was  peculiar.  He 
went  by  leaps,  using  chiefly  his  hind  legs.  His  colpr  was  diflFerent 
from  that  of  the  tame  rabbits  which  I  have  seen,  being  of  a  dark 
mottled  brown. 

Our  cat  got  sight  of  the  rabbit,  and  became  at  once  very  much 
excited.  Mr.  Goldy  (that  is  our  cat's  name)  was  standing  on  the 
porch,  about  seven  feet  from  where  Bunny  was  nibbling,  and  we 
(mother  and  I)  were  looking  on  from  the  parlor  window.  The  cat's 
eye  flashed,  and  his  tail  moved  slightly;  he  crouched  as  if  ready  any 
moment  to  spring.  The  scene  became  very  exciting.  We  expected 
every  moment  to  see  poor  Bunny  murdered  in  open  day,  right  before 
our  eyes.  But  just  as  we  were  going  to  warn  him  of  his  danger,  he 
caught  sight  of  the  treacherous  foe,  and  forthwith  suspended  oper- 
ations. 

Then  ensued  a  moment  of  awful  suspense.  Bunny  stood  perfectly 
Btill,  as  if  afraid  that  the  least  motion  would  bring  on  the  catastrophe. 
Goldy,  also,  cat-like,  watched  and  waited,  in  hope  of  some  more 
favorable  jnoment  for  making  the  final  spring.  At  last.  Bunny  could 
stand  it  no  longer,  and,  with  a  wild  bound,  started  for  the  back  part 
of  the  grounds.  We  expected  of  course  to  see  Goldy  follow  and 
seize  his  victim.  Instead  of  that,  he  walked  composedly  to  the  place 
where  Bunny  had  been  nibbling,  smelled  the  grass  and  ground  a 
little,  and  then  fiA«aHed  away  to  the  kitchen,     The  fact  vfa,^,  Mr. 


DESCRIPTIONS.  325 

Goldy  showed  the  white  feather,  and  was  about  as  glad  to  get  off  as 
Bunny  was. 

This  Mr.  Bunny  was  a  cunning  chap.  After  escaping  from  the 
yard,  he  went  a  few  rods  into  the  adjoining  field,  and  stopped  in  the 
midst  of  some  high  grass,  where  he  remained,  head  up,  perfectly 
motionless.  I  threw  ever  so  many  stones  at  him,  some  of  which 
came  very  near  hitting  him,  and  I  shouted  again  and  again,  but  he 
remained  as  still  as  if  he  had  been  a  bush  or  a  clump  of  grass ;  and 
I  have  no  doubt  he  had  sense  enough  to  know  that  moving  about 
and  dodging  would  be  the  surest  way  of  betraying  his  whereabouts 
to  his  enemies.  I  watched  him  from  time  to  time  all  the  afternoon, 
until  after  dark,  and  still  he  did  not  move. 

Example. — Subject,  A  View  from  the  Bridge. 

Note.  The  Bridge  here  referred  to  is  the  New  Bridge  over  the  Delaware,  at  Trenton, 
N.  J.,  and  the  time  selected  for  the  description  was  an  afternoon  in  June. 

Description,    By  a  more  advanced  Student. 

In  crossing  the  bridge  this  afternoon,  I  saw  many  things  that 
interested  me,  some  of  which  I  shall  describe.  In  going  over,  I  took 
the  path  on  the  north  side,  looking  up  the  stream;  in  returning,  I 
took  the  path  on  the  south  side,  looking  down  the  stream.  I  shall 
follow  the  same  order  in  my  description. 

Looking  north  from  the  bridge,  the  most  conspicuous  object  is  the 
State  Asylum  for  the  Insane.  This  noble  edifice,  so  beautiful  in  its 
architectural  proportions,  has  a  deep  background  of  forest-trees, 
giving  it  an  air  of  sweet  and  quiet  repose.  The  building  itself 
stands  on  a  gentle  elevation,  with  a  lawn  sloping  down  in  front ;  and 
both  building  and  lawn  are  open  to  the  south,  and  consequently  are 
full  in  the  eye  of  one  looking  northward  from  the  bridge,  as  I  did 
this  afternoon.  But  behind  the  building  and  at  each  end  of  it  is  an 
encompassing  forest  of  living  green,  as  if  the  enormous  structure 
were  actually  reposing  upon  a  mass  of  foliage.  The  effect  is  extremely 
pleasing  to  the  eye. 

Another  conspicuous  object  is  a  brown-stone  dwelling-house,  stand- 
ing near  the  river,  on  the  east  bank,  and  not  far  from  the  bridge. 
This  house,  like  the  Asylum,  is  embosomed  in  the  foliage  of  large 
forest-trees,  not  so  closely  as  to  exclude  a  view  of  the  building,  but 
just  enough  to  give  that  air  of  softness  and  repose  which  was 
remarked  of  the  Asylum.  The  house  is  built  in  the  style  known 
among  architects  as  the  Norman,  with  a  flat  roof  and  a  high  square 
tower  on  one  corner.  The  hard,  angular  chara«ter  of  the  building 
28* 


326  COMPOSITION    AND    KHETORIC. 

is  softened  to  the  eye  by  the  mass  of  foliage  in  which  it  seems  to 
repose.  Along  the  same  bank,  and  still  nearer  to  the  bridge,  are 
several  other  new  buildings,  with  pretty  Mansard  roofs.  On  the 
western  bank  is  a  building  standing  back  some  distance  from  the 
river,  and  so  unusual  in  its  shape  and  appearance  that  I  could  not 
determine,  without  going  nearer,  whether  it  was  a  dwelling-house  ot 
a  barn. 

Among  the  natural  objects  that  attract  the  eye  is  a  pretty  island, 
standing  midway  in  the  river,  about  two  miles  off,  apparently,  and 
beautifully  green  on  all  sides  down  to  the  water's  edge.  The  river 
itself,  however,  is  quite  as  pretty  as  any  of  its  surroundings.  At 
this  season  of  the  year,  particularly  when  swollen  by  recent  rains, 
its  current  is  broad  and  full ;  and  there  is  sufficient  descent  at  this 
point  to  give  to  the  water  that  steady,  gliding  motion  which  is  always 
pleasing.  On  the  right  bank,  close  under  the  bridge,  was  quite  a 
large  collection  of  row-boats,  kept  there  apparently  for  pleasure- 
parties.  Two  or  three  lazy  boatmen  were  lounging  about,  as  if 
waiting  for  customers.  I  suppose  these  men  keep  the  boats  for  hire. 
There  were  fifteen  of  these  boats,  all  light  and  trim-looking,  as  if 
made  for  service,  but  none  of  them  gay  or  fanciful  in  style. 

When  about  half-way  across  the  bridge,  I  noticed  a  fine  echo  on 
the  other  side.  A  dog  was  barking,  and  his  barks  all  came  distinctly 
repeated  by  the  echo.  The  bridge  does  not  appear  to  be  very  firmly 
built,  as  it  vibrates  considerably  every  time  a  vehicle  of  any  size 
passes  over  it. 

The  bridge  has  not  escaped  entirely  the  assaults  of  the  advertisers. 
On  one  of  the  beams,  near  the  middle,  is  a  big  placard  with  the 
inscription,  *'Buy  your  Goods  at  Clark  &  Sanderson's,"  This  is 
nothing,  however,  to  the  small  bridge  over  the  canal,  on  the  other 
side.  That  is  completely  covered  with  advertising  placards.  Is  it 
right  to  have  our  streets,  and  fences,  and  buildings  of  every  kind 
thus  turned  into  an  advertising  medium  ?  It  seems  as  if  the  whole 
face  of  the  county  were  becoming  one  big  advertising  sheet. 

The  view  from  the  south  side  of  the  bridge  is  less  picturesque  than 
that  from  the  north,  and  is  proportionably  more  varied  and  exciting. 
The  descent  of  the  water  becomes  so  great  as  to  produce  several 
rapids,  and  there  are  many  projecting  rocks,  giving  a  very  different 
aspect  to  the  stream  from  that  which  it  has  above  the  bridge.  A 
large  part  of  Trenton  lies  in  full  view.  Among  the  principal  public 
buildings  in  sight  are  the  State  House,  the  First  and  Third  Presby- 
terian churches,  Taylor  Hall,  the  State-Street  Methodist  Church,  the 
Court  House,  the  Second  Presbyterian  Church,  and  the  First  Baptist 


DESCRIPTIONS.  327 

Church,  two  or  three  large  rolling-mills,  and  last,  but  not  least,  the 
Old  Trenton  Bridge.  This  last  structure  is  said  to  be  a  very  solid 
one.  It  certainly  has  done  good  service.  But  it  is  about  the  mean- 
est-looking concern  one  can  find  in  a  day's  travel. 

OTHER   SUBJECTS. 

A  Visit  to  a  Picture  Gallery. 

A  Description  of  a  Rolling  Mill. 

Sights  at  the  Railroad  Station. 

A  Description  of  the  Girard  College  Buildings. 

A  Description  of  a  Snow  Storm. 

A  Description  of  a  Factory. 

A  Description  of  the  United  States  Mint. 

The  View  from  the  Chesnut-Street  Bridge,  Philadelphia. 

The  View  from  the  Top  of  the  State  House. 

A  Description  of  Independence  Hall. 


CHAPTER  VI  I. 

Miscellaneous  Subjects. 

In  the  exercises  which  have  been  given  thus  far,  the  sub- 
jects have  involved,  1.  Objects  Simply;  2.  Transactions; 
3.  Qualities ;  4.  Imaginary  Subjects ;  5.  Personal  Narra- 
tives ;  6.  Descriptions. 

When  pupils  are  once  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  men- 
tal steps  implied  in  these  six  classes  of  composition,  they 
may  proceed  to  write  upon  any  theme  of  which  they  have  a 
competent  knowledge. 

The  Object  — The  object  of  the  exercise,  it  should  be  remembered, 
is  not  to  add  to  the  pupil's  knowledge,  or  even  to  test  it,  but  simply 
to  train  him  in  the  art  of  hunting  up  and  setting  in  order  the 
thoughts  he  may  have  on  any  subject,  and  in  expressing  those 
thoughts  with  rhetorical  propriety.  Invention  in  any  other  sense, 
in  the  sense  at  least  of  investigation  for  the  purpose  of  adding  to 
one's  knowledge  and  scholarship,  belongs,  not  to  Rhetoric,  but  to 
general  education. 

Historical  Narrations,  though  often  recommended  for  introductory 
exercises,  are  unsuitable  for  that  purpose.  They  are,  of  all  sub- 
jects, the  ones  least  conducive  to  the  development  of  the  power  of 
Invention.  So  far  from  making  the  pupil  inventive,  they  almost 
inevitably  beget  in  him  the  habit  of  copying.  Writing  out  from 
recollection  what  one  has  read  of  any  historical  incident  may  be  a 
good  exercise  for  the  memory,  but  it  is  a  very  poor  one  for  teaching 
composition.  Writing  critiques  upon  historical  characters  or  events 
is  an   excellent   exercise  for  advanced  scholars,   who  are  already 

328 


MISCELLANEOUS    SUBJECTS. 


329 


versed  in  the  art  of  composition,  and  well  read  in  the  history  which 
they  undertake  to  criticize.  But  such  topics  should  never  be  under- 
taken by  beginners. 

No  examples  are  needed  under  this  head.  Instead  of  examples,  a  full  list  of  sub- 
jects is  given,  which  -will  aid  the  teacher  in  assigning,  and  the  student  in  selecting, 
topics  for  compositions. 

MISCBIXANEOUS    SUBJECTS. 


1.  Hard  for  an  Empty  Box  to 
Stand  Upright;  or,  the  Tempta- 
tions of  Poverty. 

2.  Happiness  more  in  Pursuit 
than  in  Possession. 

8.  A  Rolling  Stone  Gathers  no 
Moss. 

4.  Should  the  Study  of  Latin  be  Op- 
tional in  an  Institution  Profess- 
ing to  give  a  Liberal  Education  ? 

5.  How  far  should  the  Study  of 
Mathematics  go  in  a  General 
Course  of  Study  for  Young  La- 
dies? 

6.  Refinement  a  National  Benefit. 

7.  The  Invention  cf  the  Tele- 
graph. 

8.  Importance  of  a  Habit  of 
Cleanliness. 

9.  It  takes  Two  to  Quarrel. 

10.  How  far  should  a  Class  be 
Punished  for  an  Offence  com- 
mitted by  one  of  its  Members, 
which  cannot  be  found  out  ? 

11.  Advantages  and  Disadvan- 
tages of  Marking  Recitations. 

12.  Motives  to  Study. 

13.  It  is  Easier  to  be  Good  than 
to  Seem  Good. 

14.  Familiarity  Breeds  Contempt. 

15.  The  Effect  of  Associating  with 
those  Better  than  Ourselves. 

16.  A  Soft  Answer  Turneth  away 
Wrath. 


17.  Ought  the  two  Sexes  to  be 
Educated  Together? 

18.  Present  Tendencies  of  Peri- 
odical Literature. 

19.  The  Influence  of  Pictorial 
Illustrations  on  Literary  Taste. 

20.  Necessity  the  Mother  of  In- 
vention. 

21.  Whitewash — Morally  Consid- 
ered. 

22.  Duties  of  Scholars  to  Teach- 
ers. 

23.  The  Pleasure  of  Receiving 
Letters. 

24.  The  Character  and  Writings 
©f  Mrs.  Sigourney. 

25.  Disadvantages  and  Inconve- 
niences of  Travelling. 

26.  Importance  of  the  Habit  of 
Meditation. 

27.  Habits  of  Neatness. 

28.  The  Causes  and  Evils  of  Fam- 
ily Quarrels. 

29.  Benefits  and  Proper  Methods 
of  Reading. 

80.  Importance  of  forming  Hab- 
its of  Close  Observation. 

81.  Habits  of  Economy. 

32.  How  Pride  Displays  Itself. 

33.  Duties  to  Schoolmates. 

34.  A  Good  Heart  Necessary 
to  Enjoy  the  Beauties  of  Na- 
ture. 

85.  Power  of  Music. 


330 


COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC, 


36.  Respect  to  Superiors. 

37.  Affability  to  Inferiors. 

38.  Importance  of  Perseverance. 

39.  Never  too  Old  to  Learn. 

40.  Does  Climate  Affect  the  Char- 
acter of  People  ? 

41.  A  Sail  up  the  Hudson. 

42.  A  Journey  from  New  York  to 
San  Francisco. 

43.  Innocent  Amusements. 

44.  Skating. 

45.  The  Trials  of  a  Scholar. 

46.  A  Mother's  Influence. 

47.  The  Necessity  of  being  Able 
to  Say  No. 

48.  Dreams.  * 

49.  The  Influence  of  Fashion. 

50.  Is    it    Expedient    to    Wear 
Mourning  Apparel? 

51.  Over-anxiety. 

52.  Are  Women   more   given  to 
Revenge  than  Men? 

63.  Was  it  Right  to  Execute  Ma- 
jor Andre  ? 

54.  Is  a  Lie  Ever  Justifiable  ? 

55.  Rome  was  not  Built  in  a  Day. 

56.  Is  Childhood    the    Happiest 
Beriod  of  Life  ? 

57.  Early  Rising. 

58.  A  New  Broom  Sweeps  Clean. 

59.  Was  the  Fate  of  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh  Deserved  ? 

60.  On  Parental  Indulgence. 

61.  Influence  of  Cromwell. 

62.  Chaucer  and  His  Age. 

63.  Aristocracy  of  Wealth. 

64.  The  Invention  of  the  Cotton 
Gin. 

66.  The  Art  of  Pleasing. 

66.  Habits  of  the  Dog. 

67.  Good  Effects  of  Ridioirlo. 


68.  Description  of  a  Valley. 

69.  Habits  of  Courtesy. 

70.  Taste  for  Simple  Pleasures. 

71.  The  Education  of  the  Senses. 

72.  Street  Beggary 

73.  Is  there  Reason  to  Suppos« 
that  other  Planets  are  Inhab- 
ited. 

74.  On  the  Multiplication  of 
Books. 

75.  Comparative  Advantages  of 
City  and  Country  Life. 

76.  The  ''Fast"  Man. 

77.  Is  Labor  a  Blessing  or  a 
Curse  ? 

78.  Should  the  Truth  Always  be 
Spoken  ? 

79.  One  has  only  to  Die  to  be 
Praised. 

80.  It  is  Hard  to  Swim  Against 
the  Stream. 

81.  Love  Begins  at  Home. 

82.  One  Learns  by  Failing. 

83.  A  Ride  Across  the  Prairies. 

84.  Opening  of  the  Mail. 

85.  The  Ever-varying  Beauty  of 
the  Clouds. 

86.  The  Occupations  of  the  Far- 
mer. 

87.  Live  Within  your  Means. 

88.  No  Pains,  no  Gains. 

89.  Poor  Workmen  Find  Fault 
with  their  Tools. 

90.  Nothing  Venture,  Nothing 
Have. 

91.  One  Good  Turn  Deserves  An- 
other. 

92.  Silence  Gives  Consent. 

93.  It  Never  Rains  but  it  Pours. 

94.  Penny  Wise  and  Pound  Fool- 
ish. 


MISCELLANEOUS    SUBJECTS, 


331 


95.  Look  Before  You  Leap. 

96.  Out   of    Debt,  Out    of    Dan- 
ger. 

97.  Short  Settlements  Make  Long 
Friends. 

98.  The  Burnt  Child  Dreads  the 
Fire. 

99.  A  Bird  in  the  Hand  is  Worth 
Two  in  the  Bush. 

100.  The   Sweetest  Wine  makes 
the  Sourest  Vinegar. 

101.  Where  there's  a  Will,  there's 
a  Way. 

102.  Cut  your  Coat  According  to 
your  Cloth. 

103.  Every  Man  is  the  Architect 
of  his  own  Fortune. 

104.  No  Place  Like  Home. 

105.  Self-praise  no  Commenda- 
tion. 

106.  A  Good  Name  is  Better  Than 
Eiches.«^ 

107.  Example  is  More  Powerful 
than  Precept. 

108.  Keligion  Tends  to  Make  One 
CheerfuL 

109.  Be  Sure  your  Sin  will  Find 
you  Out. 

110.  Avarice ;    or,  the  More  we 
Have,  the  More  we  Want. 

111.  The    Folly   of    Contending 
about  Trifles. 

112.  An  Argument   Against  the 
Use  of  Profane  Language. 

113.  The  Duty  of  Confessing  One's 
Faults. 

114.  Importance    of    Governing 
One's  Temper. 

115.  The  Injurious  Influence  of 
Indulging  in  Slang. 

116.  Busy-bodies. 


117.  The  Motives  which  Lead  to 
Flattery. 

118.  Rural  Happiness. 

119.  Moonlight  at  Sea. 

120.  Curiosity. 

121.  The  Learned  Professions. 

122.  Distribution  of  Time. 

123.  Want  and  Plenty. 

124.  Intellectual  Discipline. 

125.  Bad  Effects  of  Ridicule. 

126.  Duties  of  Hospitality.  # 

127.  The   Study  of   the  French 
Language. 

128.  Delicacy  of  Feeling. 

129.  Taste  for  the  Cultivation  of 
Flowers. 

130.  The  Effects  of  Learning  on 
the  Countenance. 

131.  The     Difference     between 
Beauty  and  Fashion. 

132.  The  Choice  of  a  Profession. 

133.  Correspondence     between 
True  Politeness  and  Religion. 

134.  Health. 

135.  The  Rainbow. 

136.  Evils  of  Public  Life. 

137.  Modesty  a  Sign  of  Merit. 

138.  Art  of  Pleasing. 

139.  Order  and  Confusion. 

140.  Moral   Effects   of   Painting 
and   Sculpture. 

141.  The  Study  of  Natural  His- 
tory. 

142.  Luxury. 

143.  The     Butterfly    and     its 
Changes. 

144.  Local  Associations. 

145.  Parsimony  and  Prodigality. 

146.  The  Seasons. 

147.  Harmony  of  Nature. 

148.  An  Evening  Walk. 


332 


COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 


149.  A  Strong  Will  and  a  Strong 
AVon't. 

150.  A  Description  of  an  Evening 
Sunset. 

151.  The  Btills  and  Bears  of  Wall 
Street. 

152.  The  Effect  of  the  Purchase 
of  Alaska. 

153.  Railroad  Corporations. 

154.  The  Uses  of  Ice. 

*155.  Excess  in  Novel-Reading. 

156.  Fiction  as  a  Means  of  Incul- 
cating Religious  Truth. 

157.  A  Visit  to  the  Cave  of  ^olus. 

158.  Advantages  of  Linguistic 
Studies. 

159.  Advantages  of  Mathematical 
Studies. 

160.  The  Study  of  History. 

161.  Hebrew  Poetry. 

162.  What  Kind  of  Popular 
Amusements  are  Desirable? 

163.  Modes  of  Burial. 

164.  A  Visit  to  Greenwood  Cem- 
etery (Laurel  Hill,  Mount  Au- 
burn, Hollywood,  &c.) 

165.  Epitaphs. 

166.  Should  Children  in  Sunday- 
School  be  Organized  into  Tem- 
perance Societies? 

167.  Effects  of  War  on  National 
Character. 

168.  How  Far  is  it  Right  for  One 
Nation  to  Interfere  in  the  Af- 
fairs of  Another  ? 

169.  A  Ride  Across  the  Atlantic 
on  a  Cloud. 

170.  Should  Horse-racing  be  Al- 
lowed at  Agricultural  Fairs? 

171.  What  I  Saw  in  a  Balloon- 
ride. 


172.  Characteristics  of  the  Com- 
mon House-Fly. 

173.  The  Good  Old  Times. 

174.  Methods  of  Improving  the 
Memory. 

175.  Topics  for  Conversation  at  a 
Morning  Call. 

176.  Attention  to  Dress. 

177.  The  Personal  and  Domestic 
Character  of  Washington  Ir- 
ving. 

178.  Negro  Minstrelsy  as  a  Pop- 
ular Amusement. 

179.  Wedding  Presents. 

180.  John  Chinaman. 

181.  The  Schoolmaster  Abroad. 

182.  Effect  of  Natural  Scenery 
on  National  Character. 

183.  Influence  of  National  Prov- 
erbs. 

184.  Effect  of  the  Crusades. 

185.  Does  the  Use^f  Tobacco 
Lead  to  the  Use  of  Intoxicating 
Drinks  ? 

186.  It  Might  Have  Been. 

187.  The  Open  Polar  Sea. 

188.  International  Art  Exhibi- 
tions. 

189.  A  Uniform  System  of  Coins, 
Weights,  and  Measures,  for  All 
Nations. 

190.  Old  Coins— What  they  Tell 
Us. 

191.  Cobwebs. 

192.  Different  Kinds  of  Carpets. 

193.  Learning  to  Spell. 

194.  Every  American  Boy  Ex- 
pects to  be  President. 

195.  Spinning  Street- Yarn. 

196.  Are  Men  or  Women  Most 
Given  to  Gossiping? 


MISCELLANEOUS    SUBJECTS. 


333 


197.  Girls'  Amusements  and 
Boys'  Amusements  Contrasted. 

198.  My  Mother's  Apron-String. 

199.  Agreeing  to  Differ. 

200.  Public  and  Private  Schools — 
Advantages  and  Disadvantages 
of  each. 

201.  Our  Father  Who  art  in 
Heaven. 

202.  I  Told  You  So. 

203.  House-cleaning. 

204.  People  who  are  Always  Un- 
fortunate. 

205.  The  Difference  Between 
Pride  and  Vanity. 

206.  Gossiping. 

207.  A  Ride  on  an  Iceberg. 

208.  Theory  and  Practice. 

209.  An  Encounter  with  a  Bur- 
glar. 

210.  My  Flower  Garden. 

211.  Letter-writing. 

212.  Restless  People. 
218.  Nursing  Sorrow. 

214.  The  Dress  is  not  the  Man. 

215.  Silent  Influence. 

216.  The  History  of  a  Pin. 

217.  A  Voyage  to  the  Mediterra- 
nean. 


218.  Visit  to  a  Lunatic  Asylum. 

219.  Firmness  and  Obstinacy. 

220.  The  Honey-Bee. 

221.  Love  of  Ease. 

222.  Moral  Courage. 

223.  The  Man  of  Talent  and  the 
Man  of  Genius. 

224.  A  Good  Listener. 

225.  A  Good  Talker. 

226.  The  Grace  of  Giving. 

227.  The  Grace  of  Receiving. 

228.  Sketch  of  Aaron  Burr. 

229.  The  Market. 

230.  Love  of  Shopping. 

231.  Attending  Auctions. 

232.  Is  the  Pen  Mightier  than 
the  Sword. 

233.  Influence  of  Steam. 

234.  The  Bullet  and  the  Ballot. 

235.  The  Effect  on  the  Household 
of  having  Pictures  and  Works 
of  Art  in  the  House. 

236.  Description  of  a  Country 
Church. 

237.  Does  Poverty  or  Riches  De- 
velop tlie  Character  best  ? 

238.  Do  not  Visit  your  Neighbor 
so  often  that  he  shall  say, 
''  It  is  Enough." 


29 


22 


334  PROOF-EEADING. 

AN  EXAMPLE  OF  PROOF-SHEET, 

SHOWINQ  THE  MANNER  IN  WHICH  ERRORS  OP    THE    PRESS  ARE    MARKED    TOE  CORRECTION. 

^    I     Though  severed  differing  opinions  exist  as  to 

the  individual  by  wy(om  the  art  of  printing  was      w 


first  discovered;  yet  all  authorities  concur  in 
admitting  Peter   Schoeffer  to  be  the  person* 


tS^  ^a^ 


who  invented  cast  metal  types,  having  learned 
^      the  art-e#-  of  cutting  the  letters  from  the  Gut- 
*;/     tenbergsy  he  is  also  supposed  to  have  been 
*^     the  first  whoengraved  on  copper  plates.    TheV-/ 
following  testimony  is  preseved  in  the  family,  8    / 
jvw/    by    Jo.    Fred.^J'austuSj^f^^^^Aschaffenburg: 
*°Q  >*  Peter    Schoeffer,    of    Gernsheim,    perceiving 
11  \y    his  master   Fausts  design,  and  being  himself 
12^^  fdesirous\ardentl^  to  improve  the  art,  found 
cut    (by  the    good    providence  of   God)    the 
method  of   cutting   {ineidcndi)  the    characters     j^^ 
in  a  matrix,  that  the  letters  might  easily  be 
*/  /   singly  cast  I   instead  of   bieng    cut.      He    pri-  ^^'/ 
'*l        vately  cut   matrices]   for    the  whole    alphabet; 
Taust  was   so    pleased  with  the  contrivanj 
/that  he  promised  Peter  to  give  him  hjji^nly     '. 
16  /(ja^ghter    Christina    in    marriage    a/promises     c^  ^ 
/^vhich  he  soon  after  performed^A^  jg 

*®  ^^1  (^ut    there  were    many   djjffiiculties    at    first     '^^    |I 

with  these   letters,   as  there    had  been  before  ^  ^^om, 
20  ^_    with  wooden   ones,  fh©  metal  being  too  soft    ^_^a/i 
to  support  the  fojK^e  of  the  inTpression:  buta-'-^/ 
this   defect   was    soon    remedied,   by    mixing 
a  substanp^with  the  metal  which  sufficiently  ^, 
f  0    hardeiam  ity 


^^^Zii.  caa^  j^m  m.ed6  ma^ttce^i 


PROOF-READING.  335 

EXPLANATIONS  OF  THE  CORRECTIONS. 
Note.  —  The  numbers  refer  to  the  figures  in  the  margin. 

1.  "Wrong  Letters  or  Wordg.  —  A  wrong  letter  in  a  word  is  noted  by 
drawing  a  short  slant  line  through  it,  as  here  through  the  e  in  severd,  making  a 
similar  slant  line  in  the  margin,  and  writing  to  the  left  of  it  the  correct  letter.  °  A 
whole  word,  if  wrong,  is  corrected  by  drawing  a  line  across  it,  and  writing  the  cor- 
rect word  in  the  margin  opposite. 

2.  liCtters  Upside-down.  —  A  letter  that  is  upside-down  is  noted  by  draw- 
ing a  slant  line  through  it,  and  making  in  the  margin  the  mark  here  given. 

3.  Caps,  Small  Caps,  and  Italics.  —  If  letters  or  words  are  to  be  altered 
•  from  one  character  to  another,  it  is  noted  by  drawing  parallel  lines  below  the  letters 

or  words  so  to  be  altered  ;  namely,  three  lines  for  Capitals,  two  lines  for  Small  Capi- 
tals, and  one  line  for  Italics ;  and  by  writing  in  the  margin  the  word  Caps,  Sm.  Caps, 
or  Italics. 

4.  l>ele-in§^.  —  When  a  word  or  a  letter  is  to  be  taken  out,  make  a  slant  line 
through  it,  and  place  in  the  margin  the  mark  here  given,  which  is  the  old  way  of 
writing  the  letter  d,  and  stands  for  the  Latin  dele,  destroy. 

5.  Clianging  Punctuation.  —  A  point  is  to  be  corrected  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  a  letter  (No.  1).  If  the  point  to  be  inserted  is  a  period,  it  should  be  enclosed 
in  a  circle.    (See  example  at  the  bottom  of  the  page.) 

6.  Space  Omitted.  — If  a  space  is  omitted  between  two  words  or  letters,  put  a 
caret  under  the  place  where  the  space  ought  to  be,  and  put  in  the  margin  the  char- 
acter here  given. 

7.  Hyplien  Omitted. —  If  a  hyphen  has  been  omitted,  put  a  caret  under  the 
place,  and  write  the  hyphen  in  the  margin  between  two  slant  lines. 

8.  Letters  Omitted.  —  If  a  letter  has  been  omitted,  put  a  caret  under  the 
place,  and  put  in  the  margin  a  slant  line  with  the  letter  to  the  left  of  it. 

9.  Closing  Up. — If  a  line  is  too  widely  spaced,  or  letters  are  separated  that 
Bhould  be  joined,  the  letters  that  are  to  be  brought  together  should  be  connected  by 
a  curved  mark,  either  above,  or  below,  or  both,  and  a  corresponding  mark  should  be 
placed  in  the  margin. 

10.  New  Paragrapli.  —  When  a  new  paragraph  is  required,  put  a  carat  at 
the  place  where  the  new  paragraph  should  begin,  and  a  quadrangle  in  the  margin. 

11.  Apostroplie,  &c.  —  When  the  apostrophe,  inverted  commas,  the  star  and 
other  references,  or  letters  and  figures  of  any  kind  that  go  over  the  line,  have  been 
omitted,  put  a  carei  at  the  place,  and  write  the  omitted  apostrophe  or  other  character 
in  the  margin,  in  the  bosom  of  an  angle  made  for  the  purpose,  and  opening  upwards. 

12.  Transposing.  —  When  a  word  is  to  be  transposed,  draw  a  line  round  it  and 
carry  the  line  over  to  the  place  where  the  word  is  to  be  put,  writing  in  the  margin  tr. 
(transpose).  If  two  or  three  letters  in  a  word  are  misplaced,  draw  a  line  under  them, 
and  write  them  correctly  in  the  margin.  If  several  words  are  misplaced,  draw  a  line 
under  them  all,  write  over  them  the  figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  to  show  the  order  in  which 
they  should  stand,  and  put  tr.  in  the  margin. 

13.  Stet.  —  When  by  mistake  a  word  has  been  marked  to  be  struck  out,  and  you 
wish  it  to  stand,  put  a  row  of  dots  under  it,  and  the  word  stet  (let  it  stand)  in  the 
margin. 

14.  Space  Projecting.  — When  a  space  (a  thin  slip  of  metal  used  for  spacing) 
projects,  draw  a  line  under  it  and  the  corresponding  mark  in  the  margin. 

15.  "Words  Out.  —  When  several  words  have  been  left  out,  write  them  at  the 
foot  of  the  page,  and  draw  a  line  from  them  to  the  place  where  they  should  be  in- 
serted. If  the  matter  omitted  is  too  much  to  be  thus  written  at  the  foot  of  the  page, 
write  on  the  margin  the  words  Out,  see  copy,  and  write  likewise  on  the  margin  of  the 
copy  the  word  Out,  and  enclose  the  omitted  words  in  brackets. 

16.  Letters  Standing  Crooked.  —  The  marks  here  given  show  the  mode 
of  noting  this  defect. 

17.  "Wrong  Fount.  — When  a  letter  of  a  different  fount  has  been  inserted, 
mark  it  with  a  slant  line,  and  write  w.  f.  (wrong  fount)  in  the  margin. 

18.  No  Paragraph.  —  When  a  paragraph  has  been  made  where  none  was 
intended,  draw  a  line  from  the  broken-off  matter  to  the  next  paragraph,  and  write  in 
the  margin  No  \. 

19.  Left  Out.— When  a  word  has  been  left  out,  make  a  caret  at  the  place,  and 
■write  the  word  in  the  margin. 

20.  Faulty  Letter. —  When  a  letter  is  faulty,  draw  a  cross  under  it,  and 
make  a  small  cross  in  the  margin. 


336  COMPOSITION    AND    EHETORIO, 


THE  EXAMPLE  OF  PROOF-SHEET. 

CORRECTED. 

Though  several  differing  opinions  exist  as  to 
the  individual  by  whom  the  art  of  printing  was 
first  discovered;  yet  all  authorities  concur  in 
admitting  PETER  SCHOEFFER  to  be  the 
.person  who  invented  cast  metal  types,  having 
learned  the  art  of  cutting  the  letters  from  the 
Guttenbergs :  he  is  also  supposed  to  have  been 
the  first  who  engraved  on  copper-plates.  The 
following  testimony  is  preserved  in  the  family, 
by  Jo.  Fred.  Faustus,  of  Aschaffenburg : 

•Peter  Schoeffer,  of  Gernsheim,  perceiv- 
ing his  master  Faust's  design,  and  being  him- 
self ardently  desirous  to  improve  the  art,  found 
out  (by  the  good  providence  of  God)  the 
method  of  cutting  [incidendi)  the  characters  in 
a  matrix,  that  the  letters  might  easily  be  singly 
cast,  instead  of  being  cut.  He  privately  cut 
matrices  for  the  whole  alphabet:  and  when  he 
showed  his  master  the  letters  cast  from  these 
matrices,  Faust  was  so  pleased  with  the  con- 
trivance, that  he  promised  Peter  to  give  him 
his  only  daughter  Christina  in  marriage,  a 
promise  which  he  soon  after  performed.  But 
there  were  as  many  difiiculties  at  first  with 
these  letters,  as  there  had  been  before  with 
wooden  ones,  the  metal  being  too  soft  to  sup- 
port the  force  of  the  impression :  but  this  defect 
was  soon  remedied,  by  mixing  the  metal  with  » 
substance  which  sufficiently  hardened  it.' 


CHAPTER  IX. 

The  Study  of  the  English  Language. 

Rhetoric  is,  from  its  very  nature,  so  closely  connected  with  the 
study  of  Language,  that  I  shall  make  no  apology  for  appending  to 
the  present  treatise  some  remarks  upon  the  English  Language,  giv- 
ing a  general  outline  of  its  origin,  history,  affiliations,  and  charac- 
ter, and  some  suggestions  as  to  the  manner  in  which  its  study  and 
culture  are  to  be  pursued.  These  remarks  are  not  intended  as  a 
part  of  the  text,  to  be  studied  in  the  ordinary  routine  of  the  class- 
room, but  as  a  matter  of  information  for  those  students  who  may  not 
have  access  to  the  numerous  and  extended  volumes  which  are  de- 
voted to  this  particular  subject. 

Linguistics  is  gradually  acquiring  the  consistency  of  a  science. 
If  not  so  definite  as  mathematics  and  other  pure  sciences,  it  has  yet 
made  good  its  claim  to  be  regarded  as  a  science,  both  by  the  character 
of  its  methods  and  the  wide  generalizations  which  it  has  reached. 
Languages  have  long,  almost  always  indeed,  been  a  subject  of  study. 
But  one  may  be  an  accomplished  linguist,  reading  and  speaking 
many  tongues,  without  being  an  adept  in  the  science  of  language. 
This  science,  in  its  more  recent  and  exact  form,  differs  perceptibly 
even  from  philology.  The  material,  or  subject-matter  of  the  science, 
is  not  one  language,  or  any  one  class  of  languages,  ancient  or  modern, 
living  or  dead,  but  language  itself,  in  its  entirety.  Its  methods  are 
to  observe,  arrange,  and  classify  all  the  forms  of  speech  that  are,  or 
ever  have  been,  in  use,  and  from  them  to  deduce  the  necessary  laws 
of  speech  for  a  race  constituted  as  the  human  race  is.  It  aims  to 
show  how  language  originated,  that  is,  to  show  why  we  speak  at  all, 
and  why  we  speak  as  we  d^  to  show  what  is  the  inner  life  of  lan- 
guage, and  how  its  changes  are  effected ;  to  trace  the  relations  between 
language  and  thought ;  and,  finally,  as  the  geologist  is  able  from  exist- 
29*  337 


338  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

ing  phenomena  to  read  the  history  of  the  globe  far  back  anterior  to 
human  records,  so  from  the  existing  forms  of  speech  to  travel  back 
into  the  prehistoric  annals  of  the  race,  and  to  trace  the  doings  and 
the  character  of  races  of  whom  there  is  no  other  record. 

The  science  of  language,  as  thus  understood,  is  the  youngest  of  the 
sciences,  younger  even  than  geology,  being  yet  hardly  half  a  century 
old.  Among  its  cultivators  are  two  particularly  noticeable  by  those 
of  the  English-speaking  race,  both  as  being  on  the  foremost  wave  of 
the  advancing  science,  and  as  using  our  language  in  their  investi- 
gations, and  being,  therefore,  the  more  accessible  to  English  and 
American  students.  These  are  Professor  Max  MUller,  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford,  and  Professor  Whitney,  of  Yale  College.  Professor 
"Whitney's  book,i  although  it  has  been  but  a  short  time  before  the 
public,  has  already  placed  its  author  in  a  position  of  most  honorable 
distinction  before  the  eyes  of  his  countrymen.  If  not  so  brilliant 
and  fascinating  in  style  as  are  the  volumes  of  Max  Miiller,^  the  work 
is  equally  learned,  and  is  decidedly  more  sober  and  trustworthy  in 
its  conclusions. 

The  recent  contributions  to  the  study  of  English  by  Professor 
Marsh,'  Professor  Scheie  de  Vere,*  Richard  Grant  White,^  and  Ed- 
ward S.  Gould, 6  of  this  country,  and  by  Latham,''  Trench, «  Alford,* 
and  Moon,^"  in  England,  as  well  as  the  elaborate  reviews  which  have 
appeared  in  nearly  all  the  leading  periodicals  in  both  countries, 
show  that  the  subject  has  awakened  public  attention.  All  the  works 
referred  to  have  been  received  with  marked  favor,  and  they  have 
done  much  towards  making  the  genius  and  resources  of  our  language 
better  understood  by  those  who  use  it.  But  the  works  of  Professor 
MUller  and  Professor  Whitney,  while  necessarily  dealing  largely 
with  English,  and  while  of  great  interest  and  value  to  the  mere  stu- 
dent of  English,  yet  take  a  much  wider  range  than  those  of  the  other 

1.  Language  and  the  Study  of  Language.    By  William  Dwight  Whitney,  Professor 
of  Sanskrit  in  Yale  College.     8vo. 

2.  Science  of  Language,  2  vols. ;  and  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,  2  vols. 

3.  The  Origin  and  History  of  the  English  Language.    1  vol.,  8vo.    Lectures  on  tht 
English  Language.    By  George  P.  Marsh.    1  vol.,  8vo. 

4;  Studies  in  English.    By  M.  Scheie  de  Vere.    1  vol.,  8vo. 

5.  Words  and  Their  Uses.    By  Richard  Grant  White, 

6.  Good  English.    By  Edward  S.  Gould.    1  vol.,  12mo. 

7.  The  English  Language.     By  R.  G.  Latham. 

8.  English,  Past  and  Present.     By  Richard  Clie|pnix  Trench. 
The  Study  of  Words.    By  Ricliard  Chevenix  Trench. 

9.  The  Queen's  English.    By  Henry  Alford,  Dean  of  Canterbniy. 
10.  The  Dean's  English.    By  G.  Washington  Moon. 


THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  339 

writers  who  have  been  named.  The  difference  between  them  is  like 
the  difference  between  a  work  on  general  geology  and  a  work  on 
trilobites  or  on  the  carboniferous  era. 

Having  referred  thus  to  the  principal  sources  of  information  on 
this  subject  which  are  accessible  to  the  English  student,  I  proceed  to 
give  a  brief  outline  of  the  accepted  theory  in  regard  to  the  origin 
and  character  of  the  English  language,  and  of  its  relation  to  the 
other  languages  of  the  earth. 

In  doing  this,  it  will  be  necessary  first  to  take  the  reader  to  regions 
apparently  remote  from  the  topic  named.  But  in  many  things  a 
comprehensive  survey  of  a  whole  subject  is  the  shortest  way  of  get- 
ting at  a  precise  knowledge  of  a  particular  division  of  it.  Some  idea 
of  the  general  grouping  of  the  languages  of  the  earth  is  necessary 
to  a  proper  understanding  of  the  place  which  English  holds,  both  in 
history  and  in  general  philology.  This  is  the  more  necessary,  be- 
cause the  whole  science  of  language  has  been  revolutionized,  or 
rather  it  has  been  created,  in  times  within  the  memory  of  persons 
still  living.  The  old  theory,  which  until  lately  nobody  even  ques- 
tioned, was,  that  the  Hebrew  was  the  original  language  of  the  earth, 
and  that  all  other  languages  in  some  way  sprung  from  it.  <*A11 
antiquity,"  says  Jerome,  "  affirms  that  Hebrew,  in  which  the  Old 
Testament  is  written,  was  the  beginning  of  all  speech."  When,  there- 
fore, attempts  began  to  be  made  at  a  scientific  classification  of  lan- 
guages, the  problem  which  presented  itself  to  scholars  was,  "  He- 
brew being  undoubtedly  the  mother  of  all  languages,  how  can  we 
explain  the  process  by  which  it  became  split  into  so  many  dialects, 
and  how  can  we  trace  back  the  words  in  all  the  various  languages 
of  the  world  to  their  original  Hebrew  roots?  The  amount  of  learn- 
ing and  ingenuity  bestowed  upon  the  solution  of  this  problem  was 
prodigious,  and  has  well  been  compared  to  that  bestowed  by  the 
earlier  astronomers  in  undertaking  to  explain  the  movement  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  on  the  assumption  that  the  earth  was  the  centre  of 
the  universe.  The  foundations  of  the  old  theory  of  language  began 
to  be  shaken  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Leibnitz,  in  1710,  and  pri- 
marily by  Leibnitz  himself.  But  no  great  and  certain  advance  was 
made  in  the  way  of  establishing  a  true  theory,  until  near  the  close 
of  the  last  century.  The  steps  which  then  led  to  the  discovery  and 
the  establishment  of  the  science  of  language,  as  now  understood, 
originated  in  undertakings  not  by  any  means  scientific  in  their  aim. 

The  English  East  India  Company,  in  the  government  of  their  Indian 
empire,  have  always  had  in  their  employ  a  number  of  eminent  jurists, 
to  act  as  judges  i»  the  eivil  administration.      These  judges  early 


340  COMPOSITION    AND    EHETORIC. 

found  that  the  jurispradence  which  they  were  called  upon  to  ad- 
minister was  interwoven  with  a  vast  body  of  national  traditions  of 
unknown,  but  certainly  most  venerable  antiquity,  and  that  to  inter- 
pret these  traditions  rightly,  it  would  be  necessary  to  become  ac- 
quainted with  the  old  original  language,  in  which  they  were  con- 
tained. The  English  and  American  missionaries  in  that  country 
made  a  similar  discovery.  The  people  of  India  were  found  to  be  in 
this  respect  very  much  in  the  condition  of  the  nations  of  Southern 
Europe,  which  have  survived  the  disintegration  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire. As  France,  Spain,  and  Italy  look  to  ancient  Rome  for  the 
basis  both  of  their  several  languages  and  their  system  of  jurispru- 
dence, so  in  modern  India  many  nations  and  tribes  were  found  with 
languages  distinct  indeed,  but  closely  affiliated,  and  having  a  common 
basis  in  a  tongue  which  ceased  to  be  spoken  more  than  two  thousand 
years  ago.  This  dead  language,  existing  in  India  as  the  Latin  does 
among  the  nations  of  Southern  Europe,  is  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Sanskrit. 

The  jurists  and  civilians  of  the  East  India  Company  found,  that  in 
order  to  acquire  the  necessary  authority  as  interpreters  of  Indian 
law,  they  must  acquaint  themselves  with  the  Sanskrit  language.  The 
missionaries  were  obliged  to  study  it  for  a  like  reason.  It  was  the 
only  way  in  which  they  could  obtain  a  hearing  as  instructors  of  the 
people,  or  in  which  they  could,  satisfactorily  to  themselves,  explain 
and  confute  the  system  of  theology  and  philosophy  on  which  the  vast 
superstructure  of  Indian  religion  was  based.  These  two  classes  of 
Europeans,  therefore,  addressed  themselves  with  zeal  to  the  study 
of  this  ancient  tongue.  Their  labors  in  this  line  first  took  shape  in 
the  formation  of  the  Asiatic  Society  at  Calcutta,  in  1784,  from  which 
event,  indeed,  the  history  of  Sanskrit  Philology  as  a  European  study 
may  be  dated.  As  the  results  of  their  studies  were  transmitted  from 
time  to  time  to  the  learned  of  Western  Europe,  it  became  gradually 
apparent  that  the  facts  disclosed  were  likely  to  have  an  important 
bearing  upon  the  entire  science  of  philology.  A  surprising  coinci- 
dence, for  instance,  was  found  between  this  ancient  language  at  the 
foot  of  the  Himalayas,  which  had  been  a  dead  language  for  more 
than  two  thousand  years,  and  the  languages  of  Western  Europe. 
More  surprising  still,  this  language  was  found  even  more  like  to  the 
Latin  and  Greek.  This  coincidence  included  not  only  a  vast  number 
of  words  of  like  meaning,  but  most  wonderful  similarities  in  declen- 
sions, conjugations,  and  syntax.  Grammatical  forms  and  construc- 
tions in  Latin  and  Greek,  which  had  become  anomalous  and.  unex- 
plainable  before  the  time  of  Julius  Ctesar  and  the  grammarians  of 


THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  341 

Alexandria,  were  found  to  be  explained  by  corresponding  forms  in 
Sanskrit,  where  they  existed  in  a  state  less  impaired,  or  more  fully 
developed. 

Such  results  as  these  necessarily  led  to  a  careful  re-examination 
of  the  whole  theory  of  the  affiliation  of  languages.  It  would  not 
comport  with  the  object  of  the  present  article  to  enter  into  a  history 
of  the  investigations  and  discussions  which  followed,  nor  to  state 
the  discrepancies  of  opinion  which  still  exist  among  philologists,  as 
to  the  general  classification  and  the  geographical  distribution  of  the 
languages  of  the  earth.  The  examination  of  the  subject  has  led, 
however,  to  some  well-ascertained  results,  in  regard  to  which  the 
learned  are  pretty  much  agreed.  All  the  leading  languages,  from  the 
Himalaya  Mountains  in  Asia,  on  the  east,  to  the  Atlantic;  shore  of 
Europe,  on  the  west,  are  found  to  have  numerous  affinities  and 
points  of  resemblance  too  strong  to  be  accounted  for  in  any  other 
way  than  by  supposing  an  historical  and  ethnical  connection.  The 
ethnographical  -theory,  by  which  these  extraordinary  analogies  and 
identities  are  explained,  we  shall  now  proceed  to  state  in  the  briefest 
manner  possible.     It  will  be  understood  to  be  the  merest  outline. 

The  principal  nations  embraced  in  the  immense  space  of  longitude 
that  has  been  named,  are  supposed  to  have  all  sprung  originally  from 
the  same  central  hive  in  Asia,  the  precise  location  of  which  it  is  not 
necessary  to  the  theory  either  to  establish  or  assume,  and  to  have 
proceeded  thence,  in  very  early  times,  in  successive  swarms,  to  the 
several  countries  where  they  are  found  within  the  historic  periods. 
These  tides  of  population  are  supposed  to  have  followed  each  other 
at  distant  intervals,  and  to  have  proceeded,  as  migratory  nomads 
usually  do,  in  the  direction  of  their  original  impulse,  until  the 
impulse  was  spent,  or  until  it  met  with  some  obstacle  sufficient  to 
arrest  its  further  progress.  The  earliest  wave  rolling  westwardly 
would  necessarily  be  arrested  by  the  Atlantic,  and  would  eventually 
become  stationary  in  the  regions  along  the  coast  and  in  the  adjacent 
islands.  The  next  succeeding  wave  in  the  same  direction  would  be 
compelled  to  pause  on  reaching  the  range  of  countries  occupied  by 
its  predecessor.  The  earliest  easterly  wave  seems  to  have  been 
arrested  by  the  formidable  obstacle  presented  by  the  Himalaya 
Mountains,  and  to  have  settled  at  its  feet'among  the  plains  of  Hin- 
dostan.  So  on  with  the  several  emigrations,  east  and  west,  and 
more  or  less  remote,  until  we  imagine  the  whole  area  occupied 
between  our  two  extreme  points. 

Taking  this  general  idea,  which  is  admitted  to  be  in  the  main 
purely   theoretical,   we   find  the  following  distinct  groups  of  lan-r 


342  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

guages,  marked  off  and  yet  connected  by  well-defined  characters, 
and  by  well-known  and  indisputable  facts. 

I.  The  Indic,  or  the  languages  of  India.  The  ancient  original 
language  of  India  is  the  Sanskrit.  It  ceased  to  be  a  spoken  lan- 
guage at  least  300  B.  C.  Its  earliest  form  is  to  be  found  in  the  Vedas, 
the  most  ancient  of  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindoos.  Between  the 
Sanskrit  and  the  present  living  languages  of  India,  are  two  succes- 
sive stages,  or  dialects  (both  however  dead),  namely,  the  Pali,  con- 
taining sacred  books  less  ancient  than  the  Vedas  ;  and  the  Prakrit, 
containing  various  remains,  both  literary  and  religious,  and  ap- 
proaching to  more  modern  times.  The  chief  modern  dialects  sprung 
from  the  above,  but  largely  mixed  with  the  languages  of  the  succes" 
sive  conquerors  of  the  country,  are  such  as  the  Hindi,  Hindostani, 
Bengali,  Mahratti,  etc. 

II.  The  Ieanic,  the  language  of  Iran,  or  Persia.  The  ancient 
language  of  the  Zoroasters,  or  Fire-worshippers,  the  inhabitants  of 
Persia,  which  was  originally  called  Iran,  is  the  Zend.  Its  earliest 
form  is  in  the  Zend-Avesta,  the  most  ancient  of  the  sacred  books  of 
the  Persians.  Two  stages  of  this  also  are  found,  the  Pehlevi,  some 
centuries  after  the  Christian  era,  and  the  Parsi,  or  old  Persian, 
about  1000  A.  D.  The  chief  living  representatives  of  the  Zend  are 
the  Persian  and  the  Armenian. 

III.  The  Celtic.  The  tribes  found  by  the  Romans  in  Spain,  Gaul, 
Britain,  and  Ireland,  and  in  the  smaller  islands  along  the  Atlantic 
coast,  had  certain  remarkable  points  of  coincidence,  showing  them 
all  to  belong  to  the  same  race.  They  are  called  Kelts  or  Celts,  and 
they  have  been  divided  into  two  branches,  the  Cymric  and  the  Gaelic. 
From  the  Cymric  branch  are  derived  the  Welsh  (the  lineal  descend- 
ants of  the  old  Britons),  the  Cornish  (inhabiting  Cornwall),  and  thq 
Armorican,  in  the  province  of  Brittany  or  Armorica  on  the  coast  of 
France.  From  the  Gaelic  branch  came  the  Erse  or  Irish,  the  High- 
land Scotch,  and  the  Manx  on  the  Isle  of  Man. 

IV.  The  Italic.  With  the  ancient  language  of  this  family,  the 
Latin,  we  are  all  familiar.  The  Roman  power  and  civilization  car- 
ried their  language  into  all  those  provinces  which  were  thoroughly 
subdued.  The  chief  modern  Latin  languages,  or  Romance  languages, 
as  they  are  generally  called,  are  six,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese, 
French,  Wallachian  (spoken  in  Wallachia,  Moldavia,  and  parts  of 
Hungary,  Transylvania,  and  Bessarabia),  and  the  Romanese  (spoken 
among  the  Grisons  of  Switzerland). 

V.  The  Hellenic.  This  is  represented  by  the  ancient  Greek,  the 
modern  Greek  usually  called  Romaic,  and  perhaps  the  Albanian. 


THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  343 

VI.  The  Teutonic.  The  oldest  of  the  languages  belonging  to  this 
class  is  the  Gothic.  It  became  extinct  in  the  ninth  century.  Ulfilas, 
a  bishop  of  the  Moeso-Goths,  about  A.  D.  350,  translated  the  whole 
of  the  Scriptures,  except  Kings,  into  the  Gothic.  Of  this  transla- 
tion a  considerable  portion  of  the  New  Testament  and  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  Old,  have  survived,  and  constitute  a  most  important  relic 
of  this  ancient  tongue.  The  modern  Teutonic  languages  may  be 
divided  into  two  distinct  groups,  the  Scandinavian  and  the  Germanic. 
The  Scandinavian  includes  the  tribes  north  of  the  Baltic,  and  is 
represented  by  the  Danish,  the  Swedish,  the  Norwegian,  and  the 
Icelandic.  The  Germanic  includes  the  tribes  in  Central  Europe  south 
of  the  Baltic,  and  is  subdivided  into  two  branches,  the  High  German 
and  the  Low  German.  From  this  latter  has  sprung  the  Hollandish 
or  Dutch,  and  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the  parent  of  English. 

It  has  been  conjectured  that  the  Italic  and  Hellenic  races  entered 
Europe  south  of  the  Euxine,  following  the  coast  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean. In  like  manner  the  Teutonic  tribes  are  supposed  to  have 
passed  north  of  the  Euxine,  and  in  the  course  of  their  wanderings 
westerly  to  have  become  gradually  separated  into  two  streams,  part 
verging  north,  to  and  beyond  the  Baltic,  forming  the  Scandinavian 
nations,  and  part  going  more  centrally,  pressing  upon  the  Romans 
on  the  south,  and  upon  the  Celtic  nations  on  the  west.  This,  at  all 
events,  is  the  position  in  which  we  find  them  in  the  times  of  Livy, 
Caesar,  and  Tacitus. 

VII.  Slavonic.  The  last  of  the  great  waves  of  population  that  we 
shall  notice,  the  last  perhaps  in  point  of  time  in  its  western  exodus, 
is  the  Slavonic.  It  is  found  in  the  northeastern  parts  of  Europe  and 
the  conterminous  regions  of  Asia,  pressing  westerly  upon  the  Ger- 
manic and  Scandinavian  peoples,  and  southerly  upon  the  Graeco- 
Roman.  The  languages  of  this  group  are  very  numerous.  The 
principal  are  the  Russian,  Bulgarian,  Illyrian,  Polish,  Bohemian, 
Lusatian,  Lettish,  Lithuanian,  and  old  Prussian. 

The  seven  groups  of  languages,  that  have  been  thus  briefly  de- 
scribed, form  one  of  several  great  Families  of  Languages,  into  which 
the  numerous  varieties  of  human  speech  have  been  divided.  This 
family  has  been  variously  named.  It  has  been  called  the  Japhetic, 
because  the  nations  included  in  it  are  supposed  to  have  descended 
from  Japhet,  one  of  the  sons  of  Noah.  Another  name  is  the  Indo- 
European,  which  is  a  purely  geographical  name,  and  has  been  given 
purposely  to  avoid  mixing  up  the  philological  question  with  the  eth- 
nical one.  Of  the  linguistic  affinities,  there  is  no  doubt.  The  ethnical 
connection  has  not  been  so  clearly  established.     Still  another  name 


344  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

has  been  given  to  the  family,  and  has  been  much  insisted  on  by  those 
eminent  scholars  who  have  pushed  their  inquiries  into  the  subject 
farthest.  This  name  is  the  Aryan.  It  is  bo  named  from  an  ancient 
country  in  Central  Asia,  called  Arya  in  the  Sanskrit  books,  and 
known  by  this  title  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  supposed  to 
be  the  starting-point  from  which  these  various  nations  migrated. 

Besides  this  family,  there  are  two  or  three  others,  which  we  need 
not  describe,  as  they  are  not  connected,  except  in  a  most  remote 
degree,  with  our  present  subject.  One  of  these  is  the  Shemitic  family, 
so  called  because  the  nations  embraced  in  it  are  descended  from 
Shem,  the  oldest  son  of  Noah.  The  principal  languages  included  in 
this  family  are  the  Hebrew,  Samaritan,  Syriac,  Chaldee,  Arabic,  and 
Ethiopic.  The  other  families  of  languages  are  not  as  yet  suflBciently 
defined,  and  therefore  need  not  be  named  in  this  extremely  cursory 
review. 

The  English  language,  it  will  be  seen,  bears  intimate  relations  to 
two  of  the  groups  of  the  great  Indo-European  or  Aryan  family, 
namely,  the  Teutonic  and  the  Latin.  More  than  nine-tenths  of 
English  words  are  derived  from  one  or  the  other  of  these  sources. 
At  the  same  time,  there  are  numerous  words  in  English  that  cannot 
be  claimed  as  being  exclusively  either  Teutonic  or  Latin,  but  are 
common  to  both  sources.  Some  words,  indeed,  are  found  running 
through  all  the  seven  groups  of  the  Indo-European  family,  showing 
that  they  existed  before  the  great  dispersion.  A  few  words  are 
found  even  common  both  to  the  Indo-European  and  the  Shemitic 
families,  bearing  in  this  fact  a  history  that  carries  us  back  to  the 
ark  itself. 

It  would  be  impossible,  in  such  a  review  as  this,  to  give  the  induc- 
tion of  particulars  that  are  proper  in  the  way  of  illustration  even, 
much  less  of  proof,  of  these  generalizations.  A  very  few  familiar 
examples  will  be  quoted. 

TIIREE. 

1.  Sans. :  tri. 

2.  Zend:   thri. 

3.  Celt.:  Erse,  ^n;'Welsh,  tri. 

4.  Ital. :   Lat.,  tres,  tria ;  Fr.,  trois ;  It.,  tres;  Sp.,  ire. 

5.  Hell. :  Gr.,  rpeij,  rpia. 

6.  Teut. :  Goth.,  thri;  Ger.,  drei;  Sw.,  tre;  Dan.,  tre;  Sax.,  thr$o^ 
thri;  Eng.,  three. 

7.  Slav. :  Russ.,  tri;  Let.,  tri. 


TH^    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  345 

SEVEN. 

1.  Sans. :  saptan. 

2.  Zend:  haptan;  Per.,  heft. 

3.  Celt. :  Welsh,  sailh. 

4.  Ital. :   Lat.,  septem;  It.,  sette;  St^.,  sieie;  Fr.,  sept. 
6.  Hell. :  Gr.  tnra. 

6.  Teut.  :  Goth.,  sihun;  Ger.,  sieben;  Du.,  zeeven;  Dan.,  st/v ;  Sax., 
teofen;  Eng.,  seven. 

7.  Slav.:  Rus.,  aew;  Let,  septi/ni. 

FATHER. 

1.  Sans. :  jt?27n. 

2.  Zend:  paitar ;  Yer., pader. 

3.  Celt. :  Ers.,  athair  (initial  consonant  elided). 

4.  Ital.:  Lat,  pater ;  IL,  padre;  B>t^.,  padre;  Fr.  phre. 
6.  Hell.  :    Gr.    narrip. 

6.  Teut.:  Goth.,  vatar ;  Ger.,  vater ;  Du.  fader;  Dsin.  fader;  S"vr., 
fader;  Sax., /aeJer;  Eng.,/a^Aer. 

7.  Slav,  (doubtful). 

MOTHER. 

1.  Sans. :  matri. 

2:  Zend:  Per.,  mader. 

3.  Celt. :  Ers.,  mathair. 

4.  Ital.:  Lat.,  mater;  It.,  madre;  Sp.,  madre;  Fr.,  w^r«. 

5.  Hell. :  Gr.,  iinrnp. 

6.  Teut.:   Ger.,  mutter;    Du.,  moeder ;  Sw.,  moder;  Dan.,  moder ; 
Sax.,  moder ;  Eng.,  mother. 

7.  Slav. :   Rus.,  wa^. 

TO    BEAR. 

1.  Sans. :   6n,  hhar-adi. 

2.  Zend:  bairan;  Pers.,  ber. 

3.  Celt. :  Ers.,  bear-adh. 

4.  Ital.:    Lat.,  /ero,  pario,  porto ;  It.,  portare;   Sp.,  portar ;   Fr., 

5.  Hell. :   Gr.  (fepcj,  ^opfw,  /i^apoj  (a  thing  borne,  a  burden),  /?apvf.* 

6.  Teut.:   Goth.,  bairan;   Gqt.,  fiihren;   Du..,  beuren;   Sw.,  bsera ; 
Dan.,  bxre;  Sax.,  bseran;  Eng.  6ear. 

7.  Slav. :  Rus.,  6erM. 

Some  words,  it  is  to  be  observed,  not  only  run  through  the  entire 
Indo-European  or  Japhetic  group,  but  likewise  appear  in  the  She- 
znitic.     Thus  the  numeral  "  seven,"  already  quoted,  is  evidently  con- 
nected with  the  sheba  of  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Syriac,  and  Ethiopic, 
30 


346  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

and  the  sahaia  of  the  Arabic  and  Hebrew.  In  like  manner,  ''bear" 
seems  to  have  an  etymological  connection  with  the  Hebrew  parah, 
which  means  to  "bear,"  and  perhaps  with  the  Hebrew  hara,  meaning 
"to  create,"  <'to  produce,"  "to  bring  forth,"  (comp.  Eng.  bairn,  that 
which  is  born  or  brought  forth.) 

This  word  "bear,"  both  in  its  generic  meaning  of  bearing  a  bur- 
den, and  its  specific  meaning  of  bringing  forth  (as  of  animals,  trees, 
earth,  etc."),  is  probably  more  widely  diffused  than  any  other  word  to 
be  found  in  the  world.  There  is  no  word  of  which  we  would  feel  it 
safer  to  guess  that  it  was  used  by  Noah  himself,  and  that  it  is  verily 
older  than  the  flood. 

Let  us  look  at  a  few  of  its  forms  in  the  English  alone. 

Here  we  have  it  both  as  a  Teutonic  word,  coming'  directly  from 
the  Saxon  hseran,  and  as  a  Latin  word,  in  its  three  several  forms  of 
fero,  pario,  and  porio. 

First,  let  us  enumerate  some  of  the  forms  of  Teutonic  origin. 

Bear,  bearing,  bearer,  bearable,  bearably,  bier;  forbear,  forbear- 
ing, forbearingly,  forbearance ;  over-bear,  over-bearing,  over-bear- 
ingly  ;  bore,  over -bore,  for -bore;  borne,  over -borne,  for -borne; 
born,  bairn,  birth ;  burden,  burdening,  burdened,  burdensome,  bur- 
densomely,  burdensomeness ;  over-burden,  over-burdening,  overbur- 
dened, unburden,  unburdening,  &c. 

From  the  Latin  fero,  we  have  fertile  (bearing  freely,  productive), 
fertility,  fertilize,  fertilization,  fertilizer,  fertilizing,  fertilized.  Fors 
(forts)  comes  from  fero,  as  the  Greek  (popnov  from  (pspo,  rponof  from  rpena. 
Fors,  fortis  (whatever  bears  or  brings  itself  along,  chance)  gives  us 
fortune,  fortuning,  fortuned,  fortunate,  fortunately,  fortuneless ; 
unfortunate,  unfortunately  ;  misfortune ;  fortuitous,  fortuitously, 
fortuity.  Fortis  (that  which  bears  everything  before  it,  strong,  brave) 
gives  us  forte  ;  fort,  fortlet,  fortalice,  fortress ;  fortitude,  fortify, 
fortifying,  fortified  ;  force,  forcing,  forced,  forcer,  forceless,  forceful, 
forcefully,  forcible,  forcibly;  enforce,  enforcing,  enforced,  enforce- 
ment; reinforce,  reinforcing,  reinforced,  reinforcement.  There  is 
somef  connection  evidently  between  fero,  to  bear,  and  ferry,  to  bear 
across  a  stream ;  hence  we  have  ferry,  ferrying,  ferried,  ferriage, 
ferryman,  etc.  Fer  as  an  adjective  termination,  in  conjunction  with 
ous,  is  compounded  with  many  hundreds  of  Latin  nouns,  giving  rise 
to  such  words  as  somniferous,  noctiferous,  odoriferous,  pestiferous, 
vociferous,  etc.,  some  of  which  again  originate  a  new  progeny,  as 
vociferous,  vociferously,  vociferate,  vociferating,  vociferated,  vocif- 
eration, etc.,  etc. 

Fero,  in  composition  with  the  Latin  prepositions,  gives  a  still  mor« 
prolific  progeny  of  words ;  as, 


TUJE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  347 

Circum-/er-ence,  circumferential,  circumferentor. 

Con-fer,  conferring,  conferred,  conference,  conferrer,  conferee. 

De-fer,  deferring,  deferred,  -deference,  deferential,  deferentially. 

Dif-fer,  differing,  differed,  different,  indifferent,  differently,  indif- 
ferently, difference,  indifference,  differentiate,  differentiating,  dif- 
ferentiated. 

In-fer,  inferring,  inferred,  inferrible,  inference,  inferential,  infer- 
entially. 

Of-fer,  offering,  offered,  offerer,  offertory. 

Pre-/er,  preferring,  preferred,  preferrer,  preferment,  preference, 
preferable,  preferably,  preferableness. 

Prof-/er,  proffering,  proffered,  profferer. 

Re-/er,  referring,  referred,  referee,  referrible,  reference. 

Suf-/er,  suffering,  suffered,  sufferer,  sufferance,  sufferable,  suffer- 
ably,  insufferably. 

Trans-/er,  transferring,  transferred,  transferrer,  transferee,  trans- 
ference, transferrible,  intransferriblfe. 

The  connection  between  fer-o,  and  ^ar-io,  to  biang  forth  or  bear, 
may  not  be  obvious  at  first  sight ;  but  the  words  are  not  more 
removed  than  are  pdpos  and  <pspo}  in  the  Greek,  in  which  case  the 
connection  is  generally  admitted.  As  the  identity  of  the  stem  de- 
pends upon  its  consonantal  elements,  the  substitution  of  p  for  /  is 
the  only  material  change  in  passing  from  fer  to  the  stem  par,  or  per 
(jt?ar-io,  -pe-per-it,)  and  no  etymological  law  is  better  established  than 
the  interchangeability  of  the  labials  jt?,  b,  f,  and  v.  The  same  applies 
topor-to,  to  carry,  to  bear. 

If  these  two  words  be  admitted  to  belong  to  the  group,  we  have 
from  par-io,  parent,  parentage,  parental,  parentally,  parentless, 
parturient,  parturition,  and  very  numerous  compounds,  such  as  vivi- 
j^arous,  oviparous,  &c.  From  por-to,  to  carry,  we  have  port,  porte, 
portico,  porch,  porter,  portly,  portal,  portage,  portliness,  portable, 
portableness,  besides  the  compounds  portmanteau,  portfolio,  etc.,  etc. 
Besides  these,  we  have  also  the  various  prepositional  compounds, 
com-port,  de-port,  ex-port,  im-port,  re-port,  sup-port,  trans-port, 
each  of  which  gives  birth  to  a  numerous  family,  which  need  not  be 
enumerated,  as  they  are  formed  in  the  same  manner  as  the  deriva- 
tives of  con-fer,  de-fer,  etc.,  already  given. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  pursue  the  illustration  further.  From  a 
careful  count,  I  suppose  there  are  in  the  English  language  alone, 
not  less  than  four  hundred  and  fifty  words,  dependent  upon  this  one 
stem,  in  no  one  of  which  is  the  meaning  of  the  primary  root  entirely 
lost 


848  COMPOSITION    AND    EHETORIC. 

What  the  count  might  be,  if  carried  through  each  of  the  lan- 
guages of  the  Indo-European  family,  to  say  nothing  of  the  numerous 
traces  of  it  in  the  Shemitic  family,  I  am  unable  to  say.  It  cer- 
tainly reaches  many  tens  of  thousands. 

One  other  remark  before  we  leave  this  subject.  In  treating  of  such 
a  class  of  words,  it  is  obviously  proper  to  say,  first,  that  fertile,  con- 
fer, defer,  etc.,  are  derived  from  the  Latin /ero  ;  secondly,  that  bear, 
burden,  borne,  born,  birth,  etc.,  are  derived  from  the  Sax.  baer&n. 
But  it  is  not  proper  to  say  that  baeran  and  its  derivatives  come  from 
fero,  or  that  fero  and  its  derivatives  come  from  baeran.  The  two 
(fero  and  baeran)  are  independent  of  each  other,  and  yet  they  are 
mutually  related.  The  generic  stem,  which  pervades  them  all,  is 
not  strictly  a  Teutonic  word,  or  a  Latin  word,  but  an  Indo-European 
word. 

Having  thus  given  a  general  outline,  showing  what  is  meant  by 
the  Indo-European  family  of  languages,  with  a  few  examples  in  illus- 
tration of  the  theory,  we  will  phss  briefly  in  review  some  of  those 
historical  facts  which  show  more  particularly  the  exact  place  of  the 
English  language  in  this  family. 

According  to  the  theory,  then,  the  first  of  the  great  waves  of  popu- 
lation that  rolled  westward  from  Central  Asia,  was  the  Celtic  race. 
At  what  particular  time  this  great  emigration  took  place,  we  know 
not.  We  only  know  that  it  was  many  centuries  before  the  Christian 
era.  The  Celts,  or  Kelts,  appear  to  have  been  originally  nomadic  in 
their  character,  and  to  have  journeyed  westerly,  or  to  have  been 
driven  westerly  by  the  Teutons  or  some  succeeding  race,  through 
Central  Europe,  until  their  further  progress  was  arrested  by  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  We  find  remains  of  this  race  all  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  of  Europe,  though  they  were  chiefly  congregated  in  Spain, 
Gaul,  Britain,  and  the  adjacent  islands. 

The  Latin  or  Roman  race,  shortly  before  the  Christian  era,  ex- 
tended their  dominion  northward  from  Italy,  until  they  had  subdued 
nearly  all  the  countries  occupied  by  the  Celtic  race.  In  Spain,  and 
in  Gaul  (or  France),  this  dominion  was  so  complete,  that  those 
countries  became  integral  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Not  only 
Roman  laws  and  customs  were  introduced,  but  a  Roman  population 
extended  itself  into  those  provinces,  and  intermingled  largely  with 
the  original  population,  so  that  finally  the  Roman  or  Latin  lan- 
guage was  substituted  for  the  original  Celtic  throughout  the  proY- 
inces  of  Gaul  and  Spain. 

In  the  year  55  B.  C,  the  Romans,  under  Julius  C«3sar,  passed 
from  Gaul  into  Great  BriUiu.     From  that  time  until  42G  A.  D.,  a 


THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  349 

period  of  nearly  five  centuries,  tlie  Romans  continued  to  regard 
Great  Britain  as  a  part  of  their  empire. 

At  length,  in  the  fifth  century  of  the  Christian  era,  the  Teutonio 
or  Germanic  race,  then  occupying  Eastern  and  Central  Europe,  under 
various  names,  as  Goths,  Vandals,  Franks,  &c.,  began  to  be  agitated 
by  a  great  and  steady  impulse  southward  and  westward.  These 
fierce  northern  barbarians  precipitated  themselves  with  fearful  vio- 
lence upon  the  now  corrupt  and  imbecile  Roman  provinces.  The 
Roman  Empire,  tottering  to  its  fall  under  these  repeated  assaults, 
was  obliged  to  withdraw  its  forces  from  the  distant  provinces  for  the 
defence  of  the  imperial  city  itself.  The  Roman  legions  were  finally 
withdrawn  from  Great  Britain  in  the  year  426  A.  D.,  just  481  years 
after  the  invasion  of  Caesar,  and  the  native  Britons  were  left  thence- 
forth to  defend  themselves,  as  they  best  might,  from  the  barbarians 
that  on  all  sides  threatened  them. 

The  Roman  occupation  of  Great  Britain  differed  materially  from 
their  occupation  of  Gaul  and  Spain.  These  latter  countries  were 
thoroughly  subdued  and  made  part  of  the  great  Roman  common- 
wealth, almost  as  much  so  as  was  Italy  itself.  They  were  Romanized 
or  Latinized  almost  as  thoroughly  as  Louisiana  is  now  Americanized. 
But  in  Britain  the  case  was  different.  The  Romans  there  held  at 
best  only  a  military  occupation.  They  maintained  one  or  more 
legions  in  the  island.  They  constructed  roads,  they  fortified  camps, 
and  had,  of  course,  considerable  commerce  with  the  natives.  But 
the  Roman  people  themselves  never  settled  in  great  numbers  in  th« 
island.  * 

The  connection  between  the  Romans  and  the  Britons  was  some- 
what similar  to  that  between  the  present  English  and  the  natives  of 
India.  There  was  a  state  of  military  subjugation,  and,  to  some 
extent,  of  civil  administration  and  government ;  but  there  was  no 
general  intermixing  and  fusion  of  races.  There  was  no  extension 
of  the  language  of  the  conquerors  over  the  region  of  the  conquered. 
On  the  final  withdrawal  of  the  Roman  legions,  in  the  fifth  century, 
the  original  Britons  are  found  to  have  retained  hardly  any  traces  of 
the  Roman  or  Latin  language.  It  is  asserted  that  less  than  a  dozen 
words  altogether  remain  upon  the  island,  as  the  result  of  these  five 
centuries  of  military  occupation,  and  these  few  words  are  so  much 
corrupted  as  to  be  with  difficulty  recognized. 

Among  the  Latin  words  left  in  Great  Britain  by  the  Romans,  may 

be  mentioned,  by  way  of  illustration,  the  proper  name  Chester,  both 

as  occurring  by  itself,  and  as  a  part  of  many  compounds,  such  aa 

West-Chester,  Win-Chester,  Chi-Chester,  Col-Chester,  &o.     Chester 

30*  28 


350  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETOKIC. 

is  a  corruption  of  the  Latin  word  castra,  a  fortified  camp.  These 
fortified  camps  of  the  Romans,  in  the  distant  provinces,  were  often 
permanent  establishments,  remaining  in  the  same  place  for  a  series 
of  years.  Of  course,  the  natives  resorted  to  these  camps  for  the 
purpose  of  traffic,  bringing  for  sale  provisions,  clothing,  and  what- 
ever else  was  needed  for  the  support  of  the  soldiery.  Booths  were 
erected,  then  huts,  and  finally  more  settled  habitations,  arranged  in 
rows,  or  streets,  and  so  each  camp,  "castra,"  or  "Chester,"  became 
the  nucleus  of  a  town,  giving  us  Westchester,  Manchester,  Grant- 
chester,  and  all  the  other  Chesters. 

The  Latin  words,  however,  that  were  left  in  Great  Britain  by  the 
Romans,  as  the  result  of  this  early  occupation  of  the  island,  are  very 
few  in  comparison  with  the  whole  number  of  Latin  words  that  now  exist 
in  English.  We  know  not  how  many  Latin  words  we  now  have  in  Eng- 
lish, certainly  not  less  than  thirty  thousand.  But  this  vast  number 
was  not  introduced  by  the  Roman  conquest.  Not  a  hundred  alto- 
gether are  found  thai  came  in  as  the  result  of  that  event,  and  those 
few  are,  like  the  word  Chester,  so  much  altered,  as  scarcely  to  be 
recognized.  The  large  ingredient  of  Latin  words  now  existing  in 
English,  is  to  be  attributed  to  causes  of  much  later  date,  some  of 
them  indeed  coming  down  to  the  present  day.  Of  these  I  shall 
speak  more  fully  a  few  pages  farther  on. 

The  year  451  A.  D.  is  generally  assigned  as  the  date  of  an  event 
that  has  afi'ected,  more  than  all  other  causes,  the  destiny  of  Great 
Britain.  This  was  the  coming  of  the  Saxons,  under  the  two  brothers 
Hengist  and  HorSk. 

The  Saxons  were  a  branch  of  the  great  Teutonic  race.  They 
lived  along  the  southern  shores  of  the  Baltic,  in  the  countries  noW 
known  as  Holland,  Jutland,  Hanover,  Sleswick,  Holstein,  etc.,  ex- 
tending from  the  Rhine  to  the  Vistula.  Their  position  along  the  coast 
of  the  North  Sea  and  the  Baltic,  and  the  numerous  bays,  creeks,  and 
rivers  with  which  that  coast  is  indented,  determined  in  a  great 
measure  their  occupation,  and  separated  them  perceptibly,  both  in 
character  and  destiny,  from  their  Teutonic  brethren  of  the  forests 
of  Central  Germany.  They  were  the  navigators  of  their  age.  They 
spent  their  lives  almost  entirely  upon  the  waves.  Bold,  buccaneer- 
ing, and  piratical,  they  were  the  terror  equally  of  the  Roman  and 
the  Celt. 

The  various  tribes  of  this  race  were  known  by  different  names. 
Those  with  which  history  is  most  familiar  are  the  Jutes,  the  Angles, 
and  the  Saxons.  That  part  of  Britain  which  was  settled  by  th© 
Angles  was  called  Angle-laud,  changed  afterwards  into  "  Engle-land," 


THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  351 

and  then  into  England.  This  name,  applied  primarily  to  a  single 
province,  was  ultimately  extended  to  the  whole  country.  The  com- 
pound term,  "Anglo-Saxons,"  taken  from  the  two  most  notorious 
of  the  piratical  tribes,  and  used  as  a  convenient  abbreviation  for 
"Angles  and  Saxons,"  is  the  name  generally  given  by  historians 
to  all  those  of  the  race  that  settled  on  the  island  of  Great  Britain. 

The  Saxons  did  not  come  into  Britain  all  at  one  time,  or  in  one 
body.  Their  first  arrival  was  under  Hengist  and  Horsa,  A.  D.  451. 
One  part  of  the  race  having  obtained  a  secure  foothold  in  the  island, 
other  swarms  followed  from  time  to  time,  for  several  hundred  years. 
In  the  year  827,  nearly  four  centuries  after  the  first  settlement,  seven 
independent  Saxon  kingdoms  had  been  established  in  the  island, 
which  were  then  united  under  one  government,  known  as  the  Saxon 
Heptarchy. 

The  policy  of  the  Saxons  in  Britain  differed  entirely  from  that  of 
the  Romans.  The  Romans  had  merely  a  military  occupation  of  the 
island.  They  held  it  in  subjection  by  their  legions,  and  when  those 
legions  were  withdrawn,  the  native  Britons  remained  on  the  same 
soil  where  Caesar  found  them,  improved  and  civilized  indeed  by  con- 
tact with  the  Romans,  but  still  unmixed  as  to  race,  and  uncorrupted 
as  to  language. .  The  Saxons  came  with  a  far  different  purpose,  and 
in  a  far  different  manner.  The  Saxons  took,  not  military,  but  popu- 
lar occupation  of  the  island.  They  came,  not  as  an  army  merely, 
but  as  a  people.  They  came,  not  to  conquer  merely,  but  to  settle. 
They  made  England  their  headquarters,  their  home.  Their  policy, 
therefore,  was  one  of  extermination.  The  Romafts  held  the  Britons 
in  subjection.  The  Saxons  butchered  them,  or  drove  them  out.  The 
Roman  soldiery  and  the  Britons  covered  the  same  area  of  territory, 
mingling  freely  together.  The  Saxons  wanted,  not  subjects,  but 
soil.  The  conflict,  therefore,  between  these  two  races  was  one  of 
the  bloodiest  upon  record.  The  result  was  the  expulsion,  almost  the 
extermination,  of  the  feebler  race.  When  the  Saxon  Heptarchy  was 
fully  established,  the  great  mass  of  the  native  Britons  had  been  liter- 
ally butchered.  "Of  those  that  survived  this  fate,  some  few  had  set- 
tled in  Armorica  or  Brittany,  on  the  coast  of  France,  but  the  great 
majority  had  taken  refuge  in  the  secluded  and  inaccessible  mountain 
fastnesses  of  Wales,  where  they  remain  as  a  distinct  race  to  this  day. 
The  Welsh  of  the  present  day  are  the  lineal  descendants  of  the 
ancient  Britons. 

The  most  striking  evidence  of  the  extent  to  which  this  extermin- 
ating policy  of  the  Saxons  was  carried,  is  to  be  found  in  the  language. 
Had  the  Saxons  come  into  the  island  as  the  Romans  did,  and  mingled 


352  COMPOSITION    AND    EHETORIC. 

with  the  natives,  even  though  it  had  been  as  conquerors,  the  original 
British  or  Celtic  language  would  liave  remained  substantially  un- 
changed, or,  at  most,  there  would  have  been  a  mixture  of  the  two 
languages  —  the  British  or  Celtic,  and  the  Saxon.  So  far  is  this, 
however,  from  the  fact,  that  after  the  Saxon  conquest  was  completed, 
there  remained  upon  the  soil  scarcely  a  vestige  of  the  original  lan- 
guage of  the  island.  According  to  Latham,  the  only  common  names 
retained  in  current  use  from  the  original  Celtic  of  Great  Britain  are 
the  following:  basket,  barrow,  button,  bran,  clout,  crock,  crook, 
cock,  gusset,  kiln,  dainty,  darn,  tenter,  fleam,  flaw,  funnel,  gyve,  grid 
(in  gridiron),  gruel,  welt,  wicket,  gown,  wire,  mesh,  mattock,  mop, 
rail,  rasher,  rug,  solder,  size,  tackle. 

I  know  of  but  one  instance  in  history  of  an  extermination  so 
complete,  and  that  is,  of  the  Indian  race  who  originally  occupied 
this  country,  and  whose  fate  presents  a  curious  parallel  to  that  of 
the  ancient  Britons*  As  there  now  linger  among  our  hills  and  val- 
leys a  few  Indian  words  which  we  have  adopted  and  anglicized,  such 
as  tomato,  potato,  tobacco,  calumet,  wigwam,  tomahawk,  hominy, 
mush,  samp,  moccasin,  etc.,  so  among  the  Saxons,  after  their  bloody 
work  was  over,  there  remained  a  few  of  the  words  of  the  old  Brit- 
ons. As  the  remains  of  the  Indian  tribes  are  now  gathered  into  a 
body  in  the  West,  where  they  retain  and  keep  alive  their  native  dia- 
lects, so  the  remnants  of  the  miserable  Britons  were  collected  into 
the  western  part  of  England,  in  what  is  now  the  Principality  of 
Wales,  where  they  retain  with  great  tenacity  their  ancient  language 
and  many  of  their  ancient  customs. 

The  original  language  of  Britain,  then,  the  old  British  or  Celtic 
language,  that  which  was  spoken  by  the  half-naked  savages  that 
Cassar  saw,  still  exists.  It  is  a  living,  spoken  language.  But  it  is 
not  our  language.  Though  spoken  in  parts  of  England,  it  is  not 
the  English  language.  It  is  not  that  with  which  we  are  materially 
concerned  in  our  present  inquiry.  We,  Englishmen  and  Americans, 
are  lineal  descendants  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and  our  language  is 
the  Saxon  language.  The  English  language,  whose  history  we 
are  now  sketching,  though  it  has  received  large  admixtures  from 
various  sources,  is  in  the  main  the  same  that  was  spoken  by 
Hengist  and  Ilorsa,  and  by  their  countrymen  along  the  southern 
shores  of  the  Baltic,  before  their  arrival  in  England  in  the  fifth 
century. 

During  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  the  Saxons  in  their  turn 
were  invaded  by  the  Danes.  Tlie  Danish  invasion,  however,  does 
not  assume  much  importance  in  giving  the  history  of  the  language, 


THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  353 

because  the  Danes,  although  for  a  time  victorious,  were  finally  ex- 
pelled, leaving  the  Saxons  in  possession  of  the  country.  The  Danes, 
moreover,  were  of  a  race  cognate  to  the  Saxons,  and  their  language 
belonged  to  the  same  group  of  languages.  A  considerable  number 
of  Danish  words  were  retained  in  the  island,  and  have  been  incor- 
porated into  the  language.  They  are  not,  however,  so  numerous, 
nor  do  they  differ  so  much  from  the  Saxon  words,  as  to  make  any 
special  consideration  of  them  necessary. 

The  first  historical  event  which  impaired  seriously  the  integrity 
of  the  language,  was  the  Norman  conquest.  William,  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, generally  known  as  William  the  Conqueror,  invaded  England, 
A.  D.  1066,  and  by  the  decisive  battle  of  Hastings  routed  the  Sax- 
ons, and  gained  the  English  throne.  By  this  event  the  Normans 
became,  and  continued  to  be,  the  governing  race  in  England.  Let 
us  trace  briefly  the  influence  of  this  event  upon  the  language. 

The  policy  of  the  Normans  difi'ered  both  from  that  of  the  Romans 
and  that  of  the  Saxons,  and  it  was  this  diflFerence  of  policy  that 
caused  such  a  difi'erence  in  the  eff"ect  upon  the  language.  The  Nor- 
mans did  not,  like  the  Romans,  merely  send  over  an  army  to  subju- 
gate, but  came  over  as  a  people  to  occupy.  On  the  other  hand,  they 
did  not,  like  the  Saxons,  exterminate  the  conquered,  but  sought  to 
keep  them  on  the  soil  as  a  subject  and  servile  race.  William  divided 
the  island  among  his  followers,  giving  to  each  a  portion  of  territory, 
and  of  the  Saxon  population  which  was  upon  it.  In  this  manner, 
two  races  were  diffused,  side  by  side,  over  the  surface  of  the  island, 
and  kept  in  constant  juxtaposition.  The  effect  of  this  continued 
contact  between  the  two  races  soon  became  apparent. 

The  Normans  were  superior  to  the  conquered  race  in  military 
skill,  but  were  greatly  inferior  in  numbers.  They  sought,  there- 
fore, to  perpetuate  their  authority  by  depressing  the  social  and  po- 
litical condition  of  the  Saxons.  They  introduced  Norman  laws  and 
customs.  None  but  Normans  were  appointed  to  any  important  office, 
either  in  church  or  state.  Above  all,  a  strenuous  attempt  was  made 
to  spread  the  Norman  language  throughout  the  island.  No  other 
language  was  spoken  at  court,  or  in  camp,  in  parliament,  in  the 
baronial  hall,  or  in  the  lady's  boudoir.  In  this  language  the  laws 
were  written,  and  judicial  proceedings  were  conducted.  No  civil 
contract  was  binding,  no  man  could  sue  or  be  sued,  no  right  could 
be  enforced,  and  no  favor  won,  except  in  the  language  of  the  govern- 
ing race.  The  first  step  to  every  Saxon  serf,  who  wished  to  rise 
from  his  state  of  inferiority  and  servitude,  was  to  forget  his  native 
language,  and  train  his  tongue  to  the  accents  of  his  foreign  masters. 


354  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

But  the  laws  of  nature  are  stronger  than  the  laws  of  man.  The 
Normans  attempted  an  impossibility.  It  is  impossible  for  two  races 
to  maintain  permanently  a  separate  existence,  when  kept  in  constant 
contact  and  juxtaposition,  as  were  the  Normans  and  the  Saxons,  A 
mingling  of  race  is  sooner  or  later  the  uniform  and  inevitable  result. 
So  it  was  here.  The  Saxons  gradually  intermarried  with  the  Nor- 
mans, and  rose  to  an  equality  of  legal  rights  and  social  position. 
With  the  elevation  of  the  race,  the  Saxon  language  resumed  its  right- 
ful position.  It  had  always  been  the  language  of  the  masses,  while 
the  Norman  had  been  spoken  only  by  the  governing  few.  When  two 
races  become  thus  blended  into  one  people,  they  cannot  long  con- 
tinue to  speak  different  languages.  In  this  case,  the  Saxon,  as  being 
the  language  of  the  many,  displaced  the  Norman,  which  was  the  lan- 
guage of  the  few,  notwithstanding  all  the  weight  of  authority  and 
fashion  that  had  been  exerted  in  favor  of  the  latter. 

It  would  be  a  mistake,  however,  to  suppose  that  no  changes  in  the 
language  occurred  during  this  fiery  ordeal.  As  there  was  a  mingling 
of  race,  so  there  was  to  some  extent  a  mingling  of  language.  If  we 
take  a  survey  of  the  authors  that  wrote  two  or  three  centuries  after 
the  conquest,  we  find,  not  the  pure  Saxon  of  Alfred  and  Csedmon, 
nor  yet  the  Norman  parlance  of  William  and  his  barons,  but  a  mixed 
language,  like  the  race,  predominantly  indeed  Saxon,  but  with  a 
large  foreign  ingredient.  This  mixed  language  is  our  modern 
English.  Its  main  element  is  Saxon.  But  it  has  another  element, 
amounting  now  to  nearly  one-third  of  the  whole,  the  first  introduction 
of  which  is  to  be  attributed  to  the  Norman  conquest. 

But  who  were  the  Normans,  and  what  was  their  language  ?  The 
word  "Norman"  is  a  corruption  of  Northman.  The  "Northmen" 
were  the  inhabitants  of  the  ancient  Scandinavia,  that  is  of  Norway, 
Sweden,  and  Denmark.  They  were,  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  cen- 
turies, precisely  what  the  Saxons  had  been  in  the  fifth  century.  The 
Saxons,  after  their  establishment  in  Great  Britain,  had  been  con- 
verted to  Christianity,  had  acquired  the  arts  of  peace,  and  become 
comparatively  civilized.  The  Northmen  were  still  unlettered  pagans, 
whose  home  was  in  their  ships,  and  whose  whole  life  was  warfare. 
For  the  greater  part  of  two  centuries,  they  ravaged  all  the  more 
civilized  countries  of  Europe  bordering  upon  the  coast,  until  their 
very  name  was  a  terror.  Rollo,  a  leader  of  one  of  those  adventurous 
bands,  penetrated  into  the  very  heart  of  France,  and  finally  obliged 
the  king  to  cede  to  him  and  his  followers  an  entire  province,  amount- 
ing to  no  inconsiderable  part  of  the  kingdom.     This  province,  thus 


THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  355 

ceded,  A.  D.  912,  to  the  victorious  Northmen,  or  Normans,  was 
thenceforward  called  Normandy. 

Rollo  and  his  followers  were  comparatively  few  in  numbers.  They 
gradually  intermarried  with  their  subjects  in  the  province  which  had 
been  assigned  to  them,  and  adopted  their  manners,  religion,  and  lan- 
guage. In  less  than  a  century  after  the  advent  of  Rollo,  his  descend- 
ants in  Normandy  were,  as  to  language,  scarcely  distinguishable 
from  other  Frenchmen.  But  the  French  language,  as  we  have  seen, 
is  in  the  main  that  introduced  into  the  province  of  Gaul  by  the 
Romans.  It  is,  in  short,  a  corrupt  form  of  the  Latin  language;  and 
the  Norman-French  is  the  same  as  other  French,  only  with  the  ad- 
dition of  some  northern  or  Scandinavian  words,  which  the  descend- 
ants of  Rollo  retained  after  their  settlement  in  Normandy. 

The  Norman-French,  therefore,  which  William  the  Conqueror 
tried  to'  introduce  into  England,  was  mainly  a  Latin  language.  ^  The 
Normans  did  not  eventually  succeed  in  displacing  our  native  Saxon, 
but  they  did  succeed  in  introducing  into  it  a  large  number  of  Nor- 
man-French words,  and  these  Norman-French  words,  introduced 
into  English  after  the  Conquest,  are  generally  words  of  Latin  origin. 
These  Latin  words,  thus  introduced  through  the  Norman-French,  con- 
stitute the  first  important  item  in  the  Latin  element  of  the  language. 

The  importance  of  the  Norman  conquest,  in  its  influence  upon  the 
language,  is  not  to  be  estimated  by  the  actual  number  of  words  then 
introduced.  In  point  of  fact,  much  the  larger  number  of  Latin  words 
have  been  brought  into  the  language  since  that  time,  and  by  other 
causes.  The  chief  effect  of  the  Conquest  in  this  respect  was,  first, 
that  it  broke  down  the  old  grammatical  inflections,  which  constituted 
a  dividing  wall  between  the  two  languages,  and,  secondly,  that  it 
created  the  tendency  to  adopt  foreign  words.  There  is  in  all  nations 
naturally  a  strong  aversion  to  the  adoption  of  foreign  terms.  The 
natural  and  spontaneous  disposition,  when  a  new  word  is  wanted,  is 
to  make  it  out  of  roots  or  stems  already  existing  in  the  language,  and 
by  modes  of  combination  with  which  the  popular  ear  is  familiar. 
The  terrible  shock  of  the  Conquest,  and  the  wholesale  use  of  foreign 
words  to  which  the  people  thereby  became  accustomed,  overcame 
this  natural  dislike,  and  opened  a  wide  door  through  succeeding 
centuries  for  a  continued  influx  of  Latin  words  from  a  great  variety 
of  sources. 

The  extent  of  this  influx  may  be  estimated,  if  we  call  to  mind  that 
England,  both  from  its  position  and  from  its  natural  policy,  hag 
always  maintained  the  closest  commercial  relations  with  the  nations 
of  Southern  Europe,  and  that  those  nations,  the  French,  Spanish, 


366  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

Portuguese,  and  Italian,  all  speak  languages  that  have  descended 
directly  from  the  Latin,  and  that  have  consequently  the  closest 
affinity  with  each  other.  The  Norman  conquest  having  brought  a 
large  number  of  Latin  words  into  the  language,  and  having  opened 
permanently  the  door  for  the  introduction  of  others,  by  overcoming 
the  national  prejudice  on  the  subject,  and  by  making  such  foreign  im- 
portations fashionable  and  popular,  there  has  been  ever  since  an  un- 
interrupted stream  of  Latin  words  setting  in  upon  us,  like  a  tide  that 
knows  no  ebb.  Whenever,  in  the  progress  of  commerce  or  of  the  arts, 
it  has  become  necessary  to  have  new  words  for  the  expression  of 
new  wants,  or  new  ideas,  instead  of  making  these  new  words  by  a 
process  of  home  manufacture,  we  have  resorted  to  the  easy  credit 
system  of  borrowing  them  from  our  neighbors.  Almost  every  mu- 
sical term  in  the  language  has  been  taken  from  the  Italian,  most  of 
our  terms  of  etiquette  and  punctilio  from  the  Spanish,  and  the  en^ 
tire  nomenclature  of  cookery,  dress,  and  fashion  from  the  French. 
Italian  singers  and  fiddlers,  and  Parisian  cooks  and  milliners,  have 
levied  a  tax  upon  our  tongues  no  less  than  upon  our  purses.  These 
foreign  words,  when  first  introduced,  usually  appear  in  a  foreign 
dress.  They  are  printed  in  italics,  or  with  quotation  marks,  or  in 
some  way  to  indicate  that  they  are  foreigners,  and  not  yet  entitled  to 
the  full  rights  of  citizenship.  But  in  a  few  years,  the  popular  ear 
gets  accustomed  to  the  lingo,  the  popular  lip  learns  to  sound  it  trip- 
pingly, it  becomes  a  part  of  staple  English. 

But  there  is  another  source  from  which  Latin  words  have  been 
brought  into  the  language,  even  more  prolific  than  those  from  mix- 
ture of  race  and  from  national  intercourse.  I  refer  to  learning 
and  education.  From  an  early  period  in  English  history,  long  indeed 
before  the  time  of  the  Conquest,  all  ecclesiastics  were  instructed  in 
the  Latin  tongue,  because  in  that  tongue  all  the  church  services  were 
conducted.  Besides  this,  the  Latin  language  then  was,  and  indeed 
until  comparatively  modern  times  it  continued  to  be,  the  general 
language  of  scientific  and  literary  intercourse  throughout  Europe. 
Every  treatise  intended  for  general  dissemination  was  written  as  a 
piatter  of  course  in  Latin.  Latin  was  the  only  medium  by  which  an 
author  could  make  himself  known  to  those  for  whom  alone  books 
were  intended,  namely,  the  learned  few.  In  addition  to  this,  it  has 
been,  for  more  than  a  thousand  years,  and  it  still  is,  the  settled  prac- 
tice, that  the  study  of  the  Latin  shall  form  a  leading  part  in  every 
course  of  liberal  education.  All  educated  men,  of  whatever  profes- 
sion, have  been,  as  a  matter  of  course,  Latin  scholars.  The  language 
pf  Cicero  and  Virgil  has  been  as  familiar  to  Englishmen  of  education, 


THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  357 

as  that  of  Chaucer  and  Spenser.  Indeed,  as  to  a  critical  knowledge 
either  of  authors  or  of  language,  Englishmen  have  been  far  more 
proficient  in  the  Latin  than  in  their  native  English.  The  mother- 
tongue  has  been  left  to  take  its  chance  in  the  nursery  and  the  play- 
ground, while  Latin  has  been  interwoven  with^very  element  of 
their  intellectual  cultivation. 

The  effect  of  such  a  system  must  be  obvious.  The  wall  of  partition 
between  native  words  and  foreign  having  been  broken  down  by  the 
rude  shock  of  the  Conquest,  scholars  have  completed  what  warriors, 
teachers,  and  artists  began.  Hence  the  strange  anomaly,  that  with 
us  learned  men  have  been  the  chief  corrupters  of  the  language. 
The  Germans,  and  other  Teutonic  nations,  have  been  as  much  ad- 
dicted to  the  cultivatioi;  of  classical  scholarship  as  we  have.  But 
with  them  the  national  instinct  has  never  been  rudely  blunted,  and 
it  has  resisted  with  a  great  measure  of  success  the  Latinizing  tend- 
ency which  has  so  marked  all  classical  studies  with  us.  Our  scholars 
have  found,  not  only  no  resistance,  but  every  facility  which  the  estab- 
lished habits  of  the  people  could  afford,  for  the  introduction  of 
Latin  words.  Out  of  this  abundance  of  their  hearts,  therefore,  they 
have  freely  spoken.  Steeped  from  boyhood  in  the  diction  of  the 
most  polished  nations  of  antiquity,  they  have  but  followed  a  natural 
impulse,  when  they  have  used  "dictionary"  for  "word-book," 
"science"  for  "knowledge,"  "fraternal"  for  "brotherly,"  "ma- 
ternal" for  "motherly,"  "paternal"  for  "fatherly,"  "felicity"  for 
•'happiness,"  and  so  on,  to  an  extent  which  may  be  already  counted 
by  tens  of  thousands,  and  which  is  constantly  increasing. 

If  now,  from  a  review  of  the  whole  subject,  the  question  be  asked, 
What  are  the  main  elements  of  the  English  language  ?  the  answer 
will  be  obvious.  There  are,  indeed,  as  we  have  seen,  a  few  old 
Celtic  words,  which  have  come  down  to  us  directly  from  the  ancient 
Britons.  Among  the  thousands  of  words,  also,  that  have  come  to  us 
from  France,  Spain,  and  perhaps  Italy,  there  are  doubtless  some  few 
of  Celtic  origin,  because  the  original  population  of  all  those  countries 
was  Celtic,  before  they  were  overrun  by  the  Romans.  We  have  also 
a  few  Scandinavian  words,  introduced  by  the  Danes  during  their 
invasions  of  England  in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  such  as,  bait, 
brag,  dish,  dock,  doze,  dwell,  flimsy,  fling,  gust,  ransack,  rap,  whim, 
etc.  There  are,  too,  without  doubt,  not  a  few  Scandinavian  words 
brought  by  the  Northmen  into  France,  and  thence  by  their  descend- 
ants, the  Normans,  into  England,  after  the  Conquest.  We  have  also, 
as  every  nation  has,  occasional  words,  derived  from  every  country, 
no  matter  how  remote,  with  which  we  have  commercial  intercourse, 
31 


358  COMPOSITION    AND    EHETORIC. 

or  with  whose  literature  our  scholars  have  been  conversant.  Thus, 
we  have  tariff  from  Tarifa,  a  town  on  the  Mediterranean,  where  im- 
port duties  were  once  levied;  tamarind,  from  Heb.  tamar  and  Ind- 
us ;  damask,  damascene,  and  damson,  from  Damascus ;  spaniel,  from 
Hispaniola;  ratai^  bantam,  and  sago,  Malay  words;  taboo,  Ha- 
waiian; algebra,  almanac,  alchemy,  chemistry,  talisman,  zero,  ze- 
nith, coflFee,  sugar,  syrup,  sofa,  mattress,  from  the  Arabic ;  caravan, 
dervish,  scarlet,  azure,  lilac,  from  the  Persian ;  gong,  nankin,  from 
China;  muslin,  chintz,  and  calico,  from  India. 

But  all  these  together  are  few  and  inconsiderable,  in  comparison 
with  the  whole  number  of  our  words,  and  they  do  not  affect  the 
organic  character  of  the  language.  The  overwhelming  majority  of 
our  words  are  still  of  two  classes.  They  are  either  Saxon  or  Latin. 
These  are  the  two  main  elements  which  constitute  the  language. 

No  mention  has  been  made  thus  far  of  Greek  words,  of  which  we 
have  a  large  number  in  the  language.  The  omission  has  been  inten- 
tional, and  for  the  purpose  of  simplifying  the  historical  survey  of  the 
subject.  The  Greek  language  is  so  nearly  allied  to  the  Latin,  that  in 
a  discussion  like  this,  they  may  be  considered  as  one.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  remark,  that  very  few  Greek  words  have  been  introduced 
by  mixture  of  race,  or  by  commercial  intercourse.  The  Greek  words 
which  we  have,  were  introduced  almost  entirely  by  scholars  and  books. 
Nearly  all  of  them  are  scientific  terms.  Indeed,  nine-tenths  of  all 
the  scientific  terms  that  we  have,  are  Greek. 

Of  the  relative  numbers  of  these  two  classes  of  words,  Saxon  and 
Latin,  it  is  impossible  to  speak  with  certainty.  If  we  exclude  all 
compound  and  obsolete  words,  and  all  purely  scientific  and  technical 
words,  the  ratio  of  Anglo-Saxon  words  to  the  whole  body  of  words 
in  the  language,  would  probably  be  about  six-tenths,  or  sixty  per  cent. 
If  we  examine,  however,  the  page  of  any  ordinary  English  book, 
the  Saxon  words  will  be  found  to  bear  a  much  larger  preponderance 
than  this.  One  reason  is,  that  all  the  small  connecting  words,  the 
articles,  pronouns,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  most  of  the  ad- 
verbs, are  Saxon.  These  small  words  occur  at  least  ten  times  as 
often  as  any  other  class  of  words  in  the  language.  For  example, 
"wickedness,"  which  is  Saxon,  may  not  oofiur  more  frequently 
perhaps,  than  "malice,"  which  is  Latin.  But  "the,"  "and,"  "but," 
"if,"  etc.,  will  be  found  a  hundred  times,  where  either  "wickedness" 
or  "malice"  will  be  found  once.  Again,  some  writers  are  noted  for 
their  partiality  to  the  Latin  vocables,  others  for  their  partiality  to 
the  Saxon.  But,  taking  the  average  of  different  writers,  and  ex- 
cluding works  of  science,  in  which  sometimes  the  words  are  almost 


THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 


359 


entirely  Latin  and  Greek,  I  suppose  that  the  Saxon  words  on  any 
page  of  ordinary  English  will  be  found  to  be  nearly  nine-tenths  of 
the  whole  number. 

The  Latin  words  that  have  found  their  way  into  the  English  may 
be  again  subdivided  into  two  well-defined  classes,  viz.,  those  that 
have  come  to  us  by  national  intercourse  and  admixture,  and  those 
that  have  come  through  learned  men  and  education.  The  former 
have  come  to  us  indirectly,  from  languages  that  are  not  pure  Latin, 
but  are  the  modern  representatives  and  descendants  of  that  tongue, 
viz.,  the  French,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and  Italian.  The  others  have 
come  directly  from  the  fountain-head,  the  Latin  itself.  Words  of  the 
former  class  are  all  more  or  less  corrupted,  either  in  those  modern 
languages  in  which  the  English  found  them,  or  in  the  transition  from 
those  languages  into  the  English.  Words  of  the  latter  class,  taken 
from  the  Latin  directly,  are  changed  very  little,  or  not  at  all. 

The  difference  between  these  two  classes  can  be  best  illustrated  by 
a  few  examples.  It  exists  mainly  in  the  stem,  or  root  of  the  word. 
Both  classes  are  obliged  to  conform  to  the  English  idiom  as  to  the 
termination.  But  in  the  stem,  while  those  coming  from  the  Latin 
directly  are  almost  without  change,  those  from  the  other  languages, 
particularly  those  from  the  French,  are  almost  invariably  changed 
in  the  spelling.     Thus: 

Words    coming     from    the 

Words  coming  from  the  French,    or    some     other 

Latin  Stems.  Latin  directly.  modern  descendant  of  the 

Latin. 


Curs-US, 

curs-ive. 

course. 

Cur(r)o, 

cur(r)ent, 

cour-ier. 

Reg-is, 

reg-al, 

royal. 

Fruct-us, 

fruct-ify, 

fruit. 

Fragil-is, 

fragil-e, 

frail. 

Pung-ens, 

pung-ent. 

poignant. 

Punct-um, 

punct-ual, 

point. 

Recept-um, 

recept-acle, 

receipt. 

Decept-um, 

decept-ion, 

deceit. 

Di  urn-US, 

diurn-al, 

journal. 

It  is  a  common  opinion,  that  the  language  has  deteriorated  in 
consequence  of  this  multitude  of  foreign  admixtures.  Some  purists 
have  gone  so  far  as  to  recommend  an  entire  disuse  of  words  of  Latin 
origin, — to  put  upon  them  the  ban  of  public  odium,  to  stigmatize 
them  as  foreigners  and  intruders.     It  cannot  be  doubted,  indeed, 


360  COMPOSITION    AND    EHETORIC. 

that  many  writers  have  been  beguiled  into  an  excess  in  their  par- 
tiality for  the  Latin  vocables. 

Dr.  Johnson  was  a  great  sinner  in  this  line.  "Our  Father,  who 
art  in  heaven,"  translated  into  Johnsonese,  would  read  on  this  wise, 
"  Parent  Divine,  who  existest  in  the  celestial  regions !  "  "  If  a  body 
kiss  a  body,  need  a  body  cry,"  is  a  piece  of  as  good  English  as  was 
ever  written.  Turned  into  Johnsonese,  it  would  run  somewhat  on 
thiswise:  "On  the  supposition  that  an  individual  salutes  an  indi- 
vidual, does  an  individual  lie  under  an  obligation  to  exclaim  in  a 
vehement  and  plaintive  voice?  "  A  boy  in  an  English  charity-school 
was  once  asked,  "what  King  David  did,  when  the  servants  told  him 
that  his  child  was  dead  ?  "  "  Please,  sir,  he  cleaned  himself,  and 
took  to  his  victuals,"  The  admirers  of  the  high-polite  style  would 
be  quite  shocked  at  such  homespun  talk,  and  would  array  the  mat- 
ter thus:  "What  course  of  action  did  King  David  pursue  when  he 
received  intelligence  of  the  demise  of  the  infant?"  Answer,  "He 
performed  his  ablutions,  and  immediately  proceeded  to  partake  of 
refreshments." 

Perhaps  the  happiest  hit  upon  this  style  is  the  imitation  of  Dr. 
Johnson  in  the  Rejected  Addresses.*  A  single  paragraph  will  give 
an  idea  of  the  performance. 

"Professions  lavishly  effused  and  parsimoniously  verified  are  alike 
inconsistent  with  the  precepts  of  innate  rectitude  and  the  practice 
of  internal  policy;  let  it  not  then  be  conjectured,  that  because  we 
are  unassuming,  we  are  imbecile ;  that  forbearance  is  any  indication 
of  despondency,  or  humility,  of  demerit.  He  that  is  the  most  as- 
sured of  success  will  make  the  fewest  appeals  to  favor,  and  where 
nothing  is  claimed  that  is  undue,  nothing  that  is  due  will  be  with- 
held. A  swelling  opening  is  too  often  succeeded  by  an  insignificant 
conclusion.  Parturient  mountains  have  ere  now  produced  muscipu- 
lar  abortions ;  and  the  auditor  who  compares  incipient  grandeur 
with  final  vulgarity  is  reminded  of  the  pious  hawkers  of  Constanti- 
nople, who  solemnly  perambulate  her  streets,  exclaiming,  '  In  the 
name  of  the  prophet  — figs ! '  " 

But  among  our  great  authors,  Dr.  Johnson  is  not  the  only  sinner  in 
this  respect.  Gibbon,  for  instance,  is  quite  his  equal.  No  book  in 
the  language  is  more  free  from  this  Latinism,  or  is  in  all  respects  in 
purer  English,  than  the  English  Bible.  The  writers  who  come  near- 
est to  the  Bible,  in  the  purity  of  their  English,  are  Shakspeare  and 

*  Rejected  Addresses.  By  James  and  Horace  Smith.  A  series  of  parodies  on  the 
authors  of  the  day,  published  in  1812. 


THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  361 

Bunyan.  Next  to  these,  I  suppose,  is  Addison.^  Poetry  uniformly 
is  freer  from  Latinism  than  prose  is. 

That  part  of  the  domain  of  English  letters  in  which  words  of 
classical  origin  most  abound,  is  in  the  field  of  science.  With  the 
exception  of  a  few  Arabic  terms,  almost  our  entire  scientific  nomen- 
clature is  derived  from  the  Latin  and  Greek,  particularly  the  latter. 
Not  less  than  nine-tenths  of  our  scientific  terms  are  Greek.  Medi- 
cine, geology,  mineralogy,  grammar,  logic,  mathematics,  physics, 
and  metaphysics,  are  all  in  a  state  of  utter  dependence  upon  lan- 
guages with  which  none  but  the  learned  are  familiar.  This  has  been, 
undoubtedly,  a  hindrance  to  the  communication  of  knowledge.  To 
any  one  acquainted  with  the  Greek  and  Latin,  the  terms  used  in  the 
different  sciences  almost  of  themselves,  and  without  further  study, 
describe  the  objects  to  which  they  are  applied. 

If  now  these  terms,  instead  of  being  taken  from  a  dead  language, 
had  been  drawn  from  the  resources  of  the  mother-tongue,  the  very 
structure  of  the  word  would  show  its  meaning  even  to  the  unlettered, 
and  with  the  meaning  of  the  word  would  be  conveyed  a  knowledge 
of  the  thing. 

When,  for  instance,  the  anatomist  speaks  of  the  *< systole"  and 
**  diastole "  of  the  heart,  he  talks  Greek.  He  must  consequently 
explain  himself.  He  must  give  in  difi"erent  words  a  description  of 
the  thing  meant,  and  after  you  have  learned  from  these  other  sources 
the  nature  of  the  subject,  you  infer  vaguely  what  must  be  the  mean- 
ing of  the  words.  I^ow,  suppose  the  anatomist  had  been  called  to 
explain  the  same.,  point  to  a  native  Greek.  The  words  themselves 
would  have, conveyed  the  idea  which  is  meant,  and  nothing  more 
would  have  been  necessary  to  convey  this  idea,  even  to  an  unlettered 
maUi  ^ai^  a  .mere ,  enunciation  of  the  terms.  To  a  native  Greek, 
systole  and" 'diastole,"  ap%fee  and"pferigee,.h,^dra?uRcS,  hydrodynamics, 
clepsydra,  creosote,  isomeric,  isomorphic,  metamorphic,  and  all  the 
other  thousands  upon  thousands  of  scientific  terms,  which  so  puzzle 
the  mere  English  student,  are  just  as  intelligible  and  expressive  in 
themselves,  as  to  the  native  Englishman  are  our  homespun  com- 
pounds, inkstand,  penhandle,  moonlight,  notebook,  sunrise,  wood- 
land, hilltop,  cornfield,  snowflake,  pitchfork,  daylight,  forenoon, 
afternoon,  and  so  on,  to  any  extent.  I  cannot  doubt,  therefore, 
that  if  the  terms  of  science  had  been,  from  the  first,  and  throughout, 
carefully  elaborated  out  of  our  own  native  materials,  the  difficulties 
in  the  communication  of  science  would  have  been  much  lessened. 

The  actual  number  of  foreign  words  in  the  language,  great  as  this 
may  be,  is  not  the  worst  feature  of  the  case.  A  still  greater  evil  is 
31* 


S62  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC. 

the  national  tendency  to  adopt  others  as  fast  as  they  are  wanted, 
without  reluctance,  and  apparently  without  limit,  instead  of  producing 
them  by  a  process  of  home-manufacture.  In  some  languages  there 
appears  to  be  a  perfect  reliance  upon  their  own  resources  for  the 
expression  of  new  ideas.  Whenever,  in  the  progress  of  the  arts,  or 
in  the  wide  ranges  of  human  thought,  it  becomes  necessary  to  employ 
some  new  words  for  the  expression  of  some  new  shade  of  meaning, 
it  is  always  done  in  such  languages  by  some  new  combination  or 
fresh  moulding  of  the  materials  already  existing.  Such  a  process 
begets  a  habit,  and  with  the  habit  a  facility,  in  the  formation  of  com- 
pound and  derivative  words,  that  in  the  end  render  a  language  in 
the  highest  degree  flexible  and  expressive.  Such  is  the  truly  infinite 
power  of  combination  in  a  language  so  formed,  that  it  is  impossible 
to  conceive  an  idea  which  the  language  does  not  furnish  within  itself 
the  means  of  completely  expressing.  How  different  is  this  from 
the  condition  of  the  English.  Every  new  fashion  from  the  French 
milliners,  every  new  dish  from  the  French  cooks,  every  new  dancing 
woman  from  the  French  stage,  every  new  singer  or  fiddler  from  the 
Italian  opera,  every  discovery  in  science,  every  invention  in  art, 
even  too  often  the  arts,  and  wants,  and  inventions  that  spring  up 
indigenously  among  ourselves,  have  to  be  made  known  to  the  public 
under  some  foreign  term.  Such  is  the  fashion,  and  fashion  in  lan- 
guage, as  in  most  things,  is  supreme.  Even  Morse  must  call  his  far- 
oflf-writer  a  telegraph,  and  Webster  himself,  our  great  lexicographer, 
with  all  his  temerity,  had  not  the  courage  to  call  his  Dictionary  a 
Word-Book. 

How  diflFerent  have  been  the  fortunes  of  the  English  from  those  of 
the  German.  These  two  languages,  in  the  beginning  of  the  race, 
started  even.  They  were  both  of  the  same  common  stock.  Their 
parents,  the  old  Saxon  and  the  old  German,  have  a  common  ancestor 
in  the  venerable  Gothic.  Cradled  in  the  impenetrable  forests  of  the 
elder  Europe,  they  were,  in  the  fifth  century,  in  the  same  incipient 
formative  condition.  The  German,  hemmed  in  on  all  sides,  but  not 
invaded,  was  led  by  circumstances  to  draw  upon  its  own  resources 
for  the  invention  of  new  terms  to  express  the  new  ideas  which  be- 
came evolved  in  the  onward  progress  of  civilization.  Hence  has 
resulted  a  language  capable  of  expressing,  by  combinations  of  its  own 
native  words,  every  shade  of  meaning  required  even  by  the  teeming 
brains  of  that  nation  of  students  —  a  language  uniting  infinite  diver- 
sity of  forms  with  entire  simplicity  of  materials.  How  diflFerent  the 
English !  —  a  conglomerate  of  materials  from  a  dozen  diflFerent 
flources ;    aflluent,  indeed,  almost  beyond  comparison,  in  its  multi- 


THE    EI!TGLISH    LANGUAGE.  363 

plicity  of  words,  but  wanting  in  that  noble  siniplicity  which  might 
have  been  the  result  of  a  different  course  of  political  events. 

But  let  us  not  be  among  the  croakers.  Bad  as  the  case  is,  it  is  not 
entirely  hopeless.  There  are  in  various  quarters  symptoms  of  a 
growing  partiality  for  words  of  native  stock.  Besides  this,  the  very 
evil  complained  of  is  not  without  compensating  advantages.  Ono 
advantage  of  this  facility  with  which  we  borrow  foreign  words,  la 
that  we  have  thereby  become,  beyond  all  nations,  rich  in  synonyms. 
For  the  same  idea,  in  almost  numberless  instances,  we  have  two,  and 
sometimes  even  three  terms,  exactly  equivalent  and  equally  legitimate. 
This  is  a  decided  advantage,  saving  oftentimes  tiresome  and  inele- 
gant repetitions.  The  writer  who  has  tired  his  readers  with  the 
term  "  native  language,"  may  take  refuge,  as  in  this  chapter  I  have 
had  frequent  occasion  to  do,  in  the  "  mother  tongue."  The  idea  is 
kept  up,  but  the  tautology  is  spared.  Moreover,  it  frequently  hap- 
pens in  these  cases,  that  of  two  words  of  different  origin,  used  to 
express  the  same  general  idea,  the  one  has  acquired  by  usage  a 
slight  shade  of  meaning  different  from  the  other,  so  delicate  and 
evanescent  as  scarcely  to  be  defined,  and  yet  perceptible  to  a  cul- 
tivated taste,  and  beautiful  in  proportion  to  its  delicacy.  How 
logically  the  same,  for  instance,  and  yet  how  different  to  the  loving 
heart,  are  the  words  "maternal"  and  "motherly."  It  was  his  skill 
in  availing  himself  of  this  peculiarity  of  the  language,  that  among 
other  things  enabled  our  own  Washington  Irving  to  express  with 
such  marvellous  exactness  the  endlessly  varying  shades  of  human 
thought  and  feeling  —  that  enabled  him  to  pass  from  the  grave  to  the 
gay,  from  the  didactic  to  the  playful,  from  the  humorous  to  the  sub- 
lime, with  an  ease  that  seems  only  equalled  by  the  movements  of  the 
mind  itself. 

Far  be  it  from  me  then  to  join  the  ranks  of  those  who  would  dis- 
miss with  a  rude  rebuff  these  Latin-English  intruders.  They  are 
now  here.  They  form  a  large  and  valuable  element  of  our  language. 
They  are  a  part  of  our  national  wealth,  and  they  should  be  cher- 
ished and  protected  accordingly.  AH  I  would  ask,  is  to  protest 
against  the  unnecessary  introduction  of  more,  and  to  insist  upon 
making  the  native  element  of  the  language  a  subject  of  more  distinct 
attention  than  it  has  hitherto  received  in  our  schemes  of  education. 


Index, 


Abbreviations fVfhen  requiring  periods, 
40,41. 

Absolute  case,  requiring  comma,  30. 

Abstract  siilQects  for  compositions, 
302. 

Accents,  in  punctuation,  57  ;  accents  at 
convenient  intervals  promote  ttie  liar- 
mony  of  the  sentence,  136;  needed 
near  the  close  of  a  sentence,  138  ;  in- 
terval between  accents,  211;  accent 
not  arbitrary,  212 ;  a  paramount  law 
in  all  speech,  212 ;  names  of  the  accen- 
tual divisions,  212 ;  place  of  the  accent 
important  in  giving  ease  and  pleasure 
to  pronunciation,  212;  rhythm  de- 
pendent upon  the  proper  adjustment 
of  the  accents,  213;  accentual  verse 
characteristic  of  modern  poetry,  235, 
236. 

Acts,  in  dramatic  poetry,  255. 

Addison,  example  of  misplaced  adverb, 
99 ;  misplaced  pronoun,  107 ;  inappro- 
priate simile,  154;  mixed  metaphor, 
158 ;  purity  of  his  English,  361. 

Addresses,  288;  college  addresses,  289. 

Admire,  meaning  changed,  75. 

Adroitness,  70. 

Adverbial  clauses,  position  of,  101. 

Adverbs,  position  in  the  sentence  im- 
portant to  clearness,  99 ;  position  of 
only,  wholly,  at  least,  etc.,  100. 

^schylus,  255. 

Msop's  Fables,  160. 

AStna,  Sir  Richard  Blackmore's  descrip- 
tion of  it,  belittling,  194. 

Affectation  in  using  foreign  words,  68. 

Aggravates,  used  incorrectly,  77. 


AJcenside's  Pleasures  of  the  Imagina- 
tion,  260. 

Aldus  Manutius,  inventor  of  the  art 
of  punctuation,  18. 

Alford,  example  of  misplaced  adverb, 
99,  100;  adverbial  clause  misplaced, 
102 ;  squinting  construction,  104 ;  mis- 
placement of  pronouns,  107 ;  The 
Queen's  English,  338. 

Allegory,  159-161;  difference  between 
allegory  and  metaphor,  159 ;  points  in 
common  in  metaphor  and  allegory, 
159,  160 ;  allegory,  parable,  and  fable, 
points  in  common,  160 ;  rule  for  alle- 
gory, 161 ;  scientific  allegory  by  Prof. 
Forbes,  161. 

Alliteration  of  the  Saxon  verse,  222. 

Alone,  how  differing  from  only,  80. 

Alternatives,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Amatory  odes,  257. 

Ambiguity,  sentences  made  ambiguous 
by  faulty  arrangement,  99-105;  by 
misplacement  of  pronouns,  107-109. 

Anacreon,  his  odes,  257. 

Anapcest,  216 ;  anapaestic  verse,  216-218; 
anapasstic  metres  for  hymns,  how 
designated,  238. 

Attd,  management  of,  128. 

Anglo-Saxon,  language,  343 ;  conquest 
of  Britain,  350 ;  linguistic  results,  351, 
352. 

Annals,  284. 

Antithesis,  161-163;  effect  of  it,  161; 
rule  in  regard  to  it,  162;  examples, 
162 ;  caution  in  regard  to  the  use  of 
antithesis,  162;  relation  to  epigram, 
163 ;  example  of  antithesis,  182. 


24 


865 


INDEX 


ApostropJie,  57 ;  a  figure  of  speech,  167 ; 
akin  to  exclamation,  167 ;  examples, 
,167. 

Apposition,  nouns  in,  require  comma, 
29;  reflex  apposition  requiring  dash, 
47. 

Apt,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Arabians,  sometimes  supposed  to  be  the 
inventors  of  rhyme,  220 ;  rhyme  ex- 
tending to  more  than  three  syllables, 
222. 

Arabic  figures,  when  requiring  pi^ 
riods,  41. 

Architecture,  compared  to  rhetoric,  187. 

Aristophanes,  of  Alexandria,  an  in- 
ventor of  points,  18;  the  dramatist, 
255. 

Arts,  Fine,  poetry  one  of  them,  251. 

Aryan,  language,  343. 

As  and  lihe,  confounded,  76. 

Asiatic  Society,  the  originator  of  San- 
scrit studies,  339,  340. 

Aside,  set  aside,  used  incorrectly,  79. 

Assassinate,  how  differing  from  kill 
and  murder,  80. 

Attitude,  of  devotion,  how  different 
from  posture  of  devotion,  79. 

Authority,  what  constitutes  authority 
for  a  word,  71,  72. 

Autobiography ,  285. 

Avocation,  distinguished  from  vocation, 
76. 

Avow,  acknowledge,  confess,  how  differ- 
ing, 80. 

Awfulncss,  an  element  of  the  sublime, 
190;  objects  which  inspire  awe,  190; 
night  awful,  190. 

Hacchanalian  songs,  258. 

Halley,  metaphor,  174. 

Haillie,  Joanna,  metaphor,  181. 

JSalanced  sentence,  93;  examples 
from  Johnson,  Junius,  Pope,  and 
others,  94 ;  use  of  balanced  sentence, 
95  ;  the  parallelism  of  Hebrew  poetry 
a  kind  of  balanced  sentence,  95. 

JBalance,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Jiarbarism  in  language,  68. 

Jiarbauld,  a  hymn  writer,  257. 

Bear  and  Fero,  number  of  words  de- 
rived from  this  stem,  344-347. 

Heattie,  specimen  of  anapasstic  verse, 
243. 

Beauty,  196-201 ;  relation  of  beauty  to 
sublimity,  196;  color  an  element  of 
beauty,  196 ;  how  fur  we  are  influenced 
by  association  in  our  admiration  of 


colors,  196;  color  in  the  natural  world 
an  evidence  of  God's  goodness,  197; 
figure  an  element  of  beauty,  197; 
regularity  jdeasing,  197  ;  variety  pleas- 
ing, 197;  curved  lines  beautiful,  198; 
motion  a  source  of  beauty,  198;  com- 
plex beauty,  198;  beauty  of  counte- 
tenance,  199;  moral  beauty,  199;  the 
beautiful  in  writing,  200 ;  beauty  of 
subject,  200;  difference  between  the 
beautiful  and  the  scientific,  200; 
beauty  of  expression,  200;  concise- 
ness not  necessary  to  beauty,  201. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  specimen  of  wit, 
204. 

Behest,  70. 

Belittling  comparisons,  154 ;  details, 
193. 

Besides  and  except  confounded,  76. 

Bible,  and  other  words  intended  to  desig- 
nate it,  require  a  capital,  62 ;  exam- 
ple of  metaphor,  171, 172, 176, 177 ;  per- 
sonification, 172,  179;  climax,  174; 
interrogation,  175 ;  simile,  177 ;  Eng- 
lish Bible,  the  best  specimen  of  pure 
English,  360. 

Biography,  285. 

Blachntore,  Sir  Richard,  description 
of  volcano,  194. 

Blair,  remarks  on  synonyms,  80;  on 
position  of  adverbs,  100 ;  on  supple- 
mentary clauses,  122;  on  omission 
of  connectives,  128;  on  letter-writing, 
262;  on  historical  composition,  281. 

Blank  verse,  225,  226 ;  not  always  iam- 
bic or  pentameter,  227. 

Boher,  instance  of  euphony,  135 ;  sound 
adapted  to  sense,  138, 139 ;  example  of 
alliteration,  222 ;  Song  of  the  Earth, 
vpecimcn  of  blank  verse  not  iambic 
or  pentameter,  226 ;  specimen  of  mixed 
verse  in  Ivory-Carver,  228 ;  specimens 
of  versification,  242,  243. 

Bonar,  a  hymn  writer,  257. 

Brace,  in  punctuation,  67. 

Brackets,  52,  53 ;  different  from  paren- 
thesis, 62 ;  relations  of  brackets,  pa- 
rentheses, dashes,  and  commas,  52; 
use  in  dictionaries,  53 ;  use  in  critical 
editions,  53 ;  in  plays,  53. 

Bridge  of  Sighs,  versification  of,  219. 

Britain,  Great,  its  settlement  ana  lan- 
guage, 348,  349. 

Browning,  examples  of  ambiguity,  106 ; 
metaphor,  178, 182. 

Bryant,  personification,  173 ;  versifica- 
tion, 245;  Thanatopsis,  260. 


INDEX. 


367 


Pugle  Song,  Tennyson,  an  instance 
of  sound  adapted  to  sense,  139. 

Sulwer,  example  of  antithesis  and  sim- 
ile, 163 ;  metaphor,  180. 

Suni/an's  Pilgrim's  Progress,  the  best 
allegory  in  all  literature,  160  ;  purity 
of  his  English,  361. 

burlesque,  similes  intended  for,  151,153. 

JBurnsy  examples  of  sectional  rhymes, 
225;  specimens  of  versification,  243; 
as  a  writer  of  songs,  257. 

Surton,  Tom  Flynn's  bewilderment  at 
the  misuse  of  he  and  Jiis,  107. 

St/,  distinguished  from  tviih,  81. 

JSyron,  example  of  apostrophe,  167; 
metaphor,  181 ;  description  of  thun- 
der-storm, 193 ;  a  passage  from  Byron 
turned  into  prose,  208;  example  of 
triple  rhymes,  221,  222 ;  sectional 
rhymes,  225;  wrote  chiefly  in  the 
Spenserian  stanza,  229 ;  example,  241 ; 
anapaestic  verse,  243. 

Cadences,  a  name  for  accentual  divi- 
sions, 212. 

Cassar,  answer  to  the  pilot,  sublime,  192. 

Calculate,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Campbell,  George,  his  positions  in  re- 
gard to  Use  as  the  law  of  language, 
72 ;  his  essay,  84-86 ;  language  should 
be  a  transparent  medium,  105. 

Campbell,  Thomas,  example  of  anapjes- 
tic  verse,  241 ;  Pleasures  of  Hope, 
260. 

Cant,  57. 

Capitals,  pp.  59-63;  object  of  using 
them,  17;  origin  of  the  word,  18; 
history  of  their  use,  18  ;  rules  for  use 
of  capitals,  59-63 ;  use  of  capitals  in 
works  of  devotion,  61. 

Captions,  58. 

Carelessness,  in  letter- writing,  263. 

Case,  vocative  and  absolute,  requires 
comma,   30. 

Cat  and  Habbit,  described,  ajs  an  exer- 
cise in  composition,  323. 

Cataracts,  sublime,  189. 

Catch,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Cedilla,  57. 

Celtic,  peoples  and  languages,  342 ;  Celtic 
migrations,  348 ;  conflict  of  Celts  and 
Saxons,  351,  352. 

Censure,  meaning  changed,  75. 

Change  of  subject  impairs  the  unity 
of  a  sentence,  119. 

(Jlianning,  examples  of  periodic  sen- 
•nce,  89. 


Chaucer,  inventor  of  the  rhythm-royal, 
229 ;  high  character  of  his  verse,  236. 

Chester f  origin  of  the  word,  349. 

Classic  verse,  difl"erent  from  English, 
226,  227. 

Claudian,  sublime  passage  spoiled  by 
belittling  details,  194. 

Clauses,  intermediate,  22;  dependent, 
23;  relative,  24;  co-ordinate,  26; 
inverted,  30;  having  a  common  de- 
pendence, 33;  clause  additional,  35; 
'  adverbial  position  of,  101 ;  qualifying 
clauses,  how  to  be  disposed  of,  114; 
relative  clauses,  121 ;  parenthetical, 
121 ;  supplementary,  122. 

Clearness,  of  sentences,  rule  on  the  sub- 
ject,  99 ;  order  of  words  important,  99 ; 
clearness  hindered  by  wrong  position « 
of  adverbs,  99 ;  Blair's  remark,  100. 

Clergymen,  etiquette  in  addressing 
them,  269. 

Cleric,  meaning  changed,  75. 

Climax,  adds  to  the  strength  of  a  sen- 
tence, 131 ;  climax  of  sentences,  132 ; 
poor  climaxes,  132. 

Close  of  a  sentence,  rules  for  its  manage- 
ment, 137,  138. 

Cobbeft,  misuse  of  it,  107. 

Coinifig  new  words,  69,  70. 

Coleridge,  example  of  sectional  rhyme, 
225. 

Collins,  Odes,  257. 

Colon,  pp.  36-38. 

Color,  a  source  of  beauty,  196 ;  how  fa» 
influenced  by  association,  196. 

Columbus,  composition  on  him  by  a  boy 
of  nine,  310. 

Comedy,  255 ;  comic  songs,  258. 

Comma,  pp.  19-32 ;  origin  of  the  word, 
19 ;  meant  at  first  a  portion  of  a  sen- 
tence, 19;  rules  for  its  use,  20-32; 
double  commas,  58. 

Comnieneed,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Common  metre,  formula  given,  231. 

Complete,  how  difiering  from  whole, 
entire,  total,  80. 

Complex  beauty,  198;  the  most  com- 
plete example  in  a  landscape,  199. 

Complex  sentences,  when  requiring  a 
colon,  36. 

Composing,  (as  a  printer's  term,)  59. 

Compositions  on  Objects,  295-298; 
on  Transactions,  299-301 ;  on  Abstract 
Subjects,  302-304 ;  on  Imaginary  Sub- 
jects, 305-312;  Personal  Narratives, 
313-321 ;  Descriptions,  322-327 ;  Mi»- 
cellaneous,  32&-333. 


368 


INDEX. 


Concede,  capability,  criminality,  conti- 
nental,70;  cable-gram,  cable-graph,70. 

Concejitiotif  vivid,  necessary  to  sublim- 
ity in  writing,  192. 

Conciseness,  necessary  to  the  sublime, 
194 ;  not  necessary  to  beauty,  201. 

Conclusion,  bringing  a  sentence  to,  129. 

Confess,  how  differing  from  avow  and 
acknowledge,  80. 

Confidence,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Connectives,  effect  of  their  omission, 
128. 

Consider,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Constime  and  construct  confounded,  76. 

Contagion,  how  differing  from  infec- 
tion, 80. 

Contctn])t,  an  ingredient  in  humor,  207. 
'  Contemptible,  for  contemptuous,  76. 

Contractions,  in  addressing  letters,  264, 
270. 

Contrasts,  faulty,  130;  contrasted 
changes  give  strength,  131. 

CooUei'ij,  its  terms  nearly  all  French, 
362. 

Cornish,  race  and  language,  342. 

Correspond,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Correspondence,  (see  Letter-writing,) 
262. 

Countenance,  the  beauty  of,  197 ;  what 
constitutes  beauty  of  countenance, 
197. 

County,  when  to  be  given  in  heading,  or 
in  superscription  of  a  letter,  264,  270. 

Couple,  used  for  two,  78. 

Couplet,  defined,  215. 

Cotvley,  far-fetched  simile,  152. 

Cotvper,  example  of  metaphor,  180; 
Task,  260. 

Crahhe's  Dictionary  of  Synonyms,  80. 

Crotvdin.g  together  things  unconnected, 
impairs  the  unity  of  a  sentence,  119. 

Cfntsoe,  Robinson,  his  adventures  inca- 
pable of  forming  an  epic,  253. 

Curran,  sample  of  pun,  204. 

Curves,  an  element  of  beauty,  198. 

Cyclops  and  Vulcan,  189. 

Cymric,  languages  and  peoples,  342. 

Dactyl,  216;  dactylic  verse,  216-219; 
dactylic  metres  for  hymns,  how  de- 
signated, 233,  234. 

Danish,  invasion,  its  effect  on  the  lan- 
guage, 353. 

Darkness,  sublime  when  inspiring  awe, 
190. 

Dash,  46-49  ;  origin  and  how  used,  46 ; 
mistake  of  careless  writers  in  the  use 


of  the  dash,  46 ;  marks  change  of  con- 
struction, or  of  sentiment,  46 ;  em- 
phatic generalization,  46;  elocution- 
ary pause,  47;  rhetorical  repetition,47 ; 
parenthetical,48;  titles  run  in,49;  omis- 
sions, question  and  answer,  etc.,  49. 

Date,  in  letter-writing,  264;  in  diary,  271. 

Decimated,  used  incorectly,  78. 

Demean,  used  incorrectly,  77. 

Dependent  clauses,  explained,  23; 
require  commas,  23. 

Descriptions,  as  an  exercise  in  compo- 
sition, 322-327 ;  taking  notes  import- 
ant, 322;  rules  to  be  observed,  323; 
examples,  323-327. 

Diaries,  271 ;  essential  character,  271 ; 
style,  271  ;  dates,  important,  271 ; 
blank  days,  271. 

DicTiens,  a  humorist,  208 ;  specimen  of 
verse,  248. 

Diction,  67-86 ;  command  of  words  im- 
portant, 67  ;  how  obtained,  67 ;  en- 
larged by  extemporaneous  transla- 
tion, 67 ;  by  the  habit  of  referring  to 
the  dictionary,  68;  diction,  when 
pure,  68 ;  standard  of  purity,  68 ;  pu- 
rity affected  by  foreign  words,  68 ;  by 
obsolete  words,  69  ;  bj'  new  words,  70 ; 
propriety  of  diction,  74 ;  means  of  at- 
taining it,  75 ;  violations  of  propriety, 
75,  76;  precision,  79;  how  attained, 
79,80. 

Dictionary,  habit  of  consulting  it  re- 
commended, 68. 

Didactic  poetry,  259. 

Difficulty,  how  differing  from  obstacle, 
SO. 

Dimeter,  216,  218. 

Directly,  used  incorrectly,  77. 

Discourse,  defined,  13. 

Discourses,  288;  orations,  288;  ad- 
dresses, 288  ;  sermons,  289 ;  lectures, 
289  ;  speeches,  289 ;  unity  of  a  dis- 
course, 290;  adaptation  to  the  au- 
dience, 290  ;  symmetry,  290;  parts  of 
a  discourse,  291 ;  introduction,  291 ; 
statement,  291 ;  conclusion  or  pero- 
ration, 291. 

Discover,  different  from  invent,  80. 

D'Israell,  adverbial  clause  misplaced, 
102. 

Doane,  Bishop,  abounds  in  short  sen- 
tences, 96. 

Doddvidffc,  a  hymn  writer,  257 

Dramatic  poetry,  abounds  in  excla- 
mations, 166 ;  general  doscription,  254- 
256.    (Sec  Poetry.) 


INDEX 


369 


Dryden,  mixed  metaphor,  156;  meta- 
phor, 172 ;  simile,  174, 175 ;  metaphor, 
175 ;  trochaics  in  St.  Cecilia's  Day, 
217  ;  his  verse  compared  with  that  of 
Milton  and  Chaucer,  237  ;  specimen 
of  verse,  246  ;  odes,  257. 

Dwightf  a  hymn  writer,  257. 

HarthquaJees,  suhlime,  189. 

JEast  India  Company,  the  means  of 
linguistic  research,  339. 

Edified,  how  used  by  Spenser,  75, 

Editorials,  274 ;  a  high  order  of  com- 
position, 275;  not  impersonal  truth, 
275 ;  editor's  estimate  of  his  own  po- 
sition as  a  public  teacher,  275  ;  differ- 
ence between  editorials  and  news,  275. 

Education f  a  source  of  corruption  to  the 
language,  356. 

Elegy,  258.    (See  Poetry.) 

Elision,  in  verse,  237;  mistake  of  the 
older  critics  in  regard  to  it,  237 ;  eli- 
sion not  necessary,  237,  238. 

Ellipsis  of  verb,  requires  comma,  31. 

Elocution,  its  pauses  not  marked  by  the 
grammatical  points,  18 ;  elocutionary 
pause  marked  by  a  dash,  47  ;  elocution 
aided  by  a  proper  arrangement  of  the 
sentences,  115. 

Einet'son,  The  Mountain  and  the  Squir- 
rel, as  a  specimen  of  wit,  203. 

Emphasis,  sentences  should  be  con- 
structed with  reference  to  emphasis, 
112. 

EtiglisJi  language,  essay  on  it,  337- 
363;  true  place  of  English  in  general 
philology,  339;  occupation  of  Eng- 
land by  successive  races,  348-353; 
origin  and  composition  of  the  lan- 
guage, 348-3G3. 

English  verse,  accentual,  not  syllabic, 
235. 

Enough,  distinguished  from  stifficient, 
81^ 

Entire,  distinguished  from  whole,  total, 
complete,  80. 

Epic  poetry,  251-254.    (See  Poetry.) 

Epigram,  origin  and  meaning,  163 ;  re- 
lation to  antithesis,  163;  examples, 
164,  182,  184. 

Epitaph,  259, 

Epithets,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Essays,  278 ;  how  differing  from  re- 
views, 278  ;  number  of  essayists,  279 ; 
present  mode  of  publication,  279; 
Whipple,Tuckerman,  and  Lowell,  279, 

Etiquette,  in  addressing  a  letter,  269. 

32 


Etytnology,  study  recommended,  68. 

Euphony,  construction  of  sentences 
with  reference  to  it,  134-136. 

Euripides,  255. 

Evacuate,  used  incorrectly,  77. 

Evaivgeline,  Longfellow's,  its  versifica- 
tion, 226. 

Every,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Example,  distinguished  from  Instance, 
81. 

Except,  used  for  imless,  76. 

Exceptionable,  for  exceptional,  78. 

Excite,  distinguished  from  incite,  81, 

Exclamation, as  &  figure  of  speech,  166 ; 
akin  to  interrogation,  166 ;  caution 
in  regard  to  the  use  of  it,  166 ;  rela- 
tion to  apostrophe,  167. 

Exclamation  point,  44,  45;  0  and  oh, 
44 ;  double  exclamations,  45. 

Expect,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Expression,  beauty  of,  200 ;  things  in- 
compatible with  beauty  of  expression, 
201. 

Expressions,  parenthetical,  20;  inter- 
mediate, 22. 

Explicit,  express,  distinguished,  80. 

Faber,  as  a  hymnist,  257. 

Fable,  akin  to  allegory  and  parable,  160 ; 
where  found,  160. 

Faery  Queen,  an  allegory,  160 ;  writ- 
ten in  the  Spenserian  stanza,  229. 

Falstaff,  incompatible  with  epic  char- 
acter, 253. 

Farce,  256. 

Far-fetched  similes,  152, 

Fa8hion,\ts  terms  mostly  French,  362. 

Fear,  composition  on  it,  302. 

Feet,  name  for  accentual  divisions,  212  ; 
foot  defined,  215 ;  different  kinds  of 
feet,  215. 

Fellowshii),  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Fero  and  bear,  the  stem  of  these  words 
a  prolific  source  of  words,  344-347. 

Fiction,  its  prevalence,  286;  kinds,  286; 
historical  novels,  286;  appeal  to  cu- 
riosity, 286 ;  delineation  of  character, 
287 ;  effect  of  novel-reading,  287 ;  re- 
ligious fiction,  287. 

Figure,  (mathematical,)  a  source  of 
beauty,  197;  what  kind  of  figures 
pleasing,  197. 

Figures,  (rhetorical,)  147-186 ;  relation 
of  figures  to  diction  and  sentences, 
147;  definition,  147;  tropes,  148; 
origin  of  figures,  149;  simile,  150; 
metaphor,    154;    allegory,    159;    ai^ 


370 


INDEX. 


tithesis,  161 ;  epigram,  163 ;  metony- 
my, IGi ;  synecdoche,  165 ;  interroga- 
tion, 165;  exclamation,  160;  apos- 
trophe, 167 ;  personification,  167 ; 
hyperbole,  169 ;  irony,  170  ;  effect  of 
undue  use  of  figures,  159. 

!Fine  Arts,  poetry  one  of  them,  250. 

Fire-tvorshipperSf  ancient  inhabit- 
ants of  Persia,  342. 

Firmament,  an  instance  of  the  sub- 
lime, 189. 

Flirtation,  peculiarity  of  the  word,  69. 

Folio,  59. 

Forbes,  Professor,  a  beautiful  example 
of  scientific  allegory,  161. 

Foreign  tvords,  not  to  be  used  unne- 
cessarily, 68 ;  may  become  domestic- 
ated, 69. 

Formidably,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  samples  of  pun, 
204. 

Frontisjiiece,  58. 

Frenchified  diction,  68. 

French  writers  use  short  sentences, 
95. 

Gaelic  languages,  342. 

Oay,  personification,  174;  metaphor,  181. 

Gentle  motion  agreeable,  198. 

Gerald  Massey.    (See  Massey.) 

German,  writers  use  long  sentences,  95. 

Germanic  languages,  342. 

Ghosts  inspire  awe  because  of  their  ob- 
scurity, 191. 

Gibbon,  use  of  Latin  words,  360. 

Glacier,  allegorical  description  of  one, 
161. 

God,  names  and  attributes  to  begin  with 
a  capital,  61 ;  his  goodness  shown  by 
the  beauty  of  color  in  the  natural 
world,  197. 

Golden  Legend,  Longfellow's,  a  speci- 
men of  mixed  verse,  228. 

Goldsmith,  metaphor,  181 ;  simile,  181 ; 
Madame  Blaise,  203. 

Gospels,  sublimity  of  them,  194. 

Got,  example  of  its  misuse,  77. 

Gothic  languages  and  peoples,  342,  343. 

Gould,  Edward  S.,  on  good  English,  338. 

Governor,  how  to  be  addressed,  270. 

Grammar,  TGlnt&di  to  rhetoric,  13,  14; 
derives  its  authority  from  use,  84. 

Gray,  metaphor,  181 ;  versification,  247  ; 
odes,  257  ;  Elegy,  258. 

Greatness,  moral,  sublime,  191. 

^O^eeJc  language,  342;  proportion  of 
ftreek  words  in  English,  358. 


Greeks  and  Latins,  greater  variety  of 
feet,  216;  Greek  verse  syllabic,  not 
accented,  235. 

Habit  ofptmning,  bad,  205 ;  habit  of 
being  witty,  dangerous,  205. 

Hallam,  pronoun  misplaced,  107. 

HallecJc,  specimen  of  versification,  244. 

Hallelujah  metre,  formula  given,  232. 

Hammers.    (See  Steam.) 

Hand,  (printer's  term,)  57. 

Harmony  of  sentences,  134-140;  pro- 
moted by  proper  choice  of  wo^ds,  134 ; 
by  arrangement  of  the  words,  135; 
by  accents'  at  convenient  intervals, 
136 ;  by  cadence  at  the  close,  137  ;  by 
adapting  the  sound  to  the  sense, 
138. 

Hawtrey,  best  specimen  extant  of  Eng- 
lish hexameter,  228. 

Heading  of  a  letter,  263,  264. 

Heaviness,  how  differing  from  weight, 
80. 

Heber,  example  of  simile,  184 ;  specimen 
of  dactylic  verse,  220;  a  hymn,  239; 
as  a  hymnist,  257. 

Hebreiv  once  supposed  to  be  the  fountain 
of  all  languages,  339. 

H^lenic  languages,  342. 

Heptameter,  216. 

Hei'o,  of  the  epic,  253;  heroic  odes, 
257. 

Hexameter,  216,  218 ;  fine  specimens, 
227,  228. 

Hiawatlia,  Longfellow's,  its  versifica- 
tion, 226,  227. 

Hindoo  epigram,  202. 

History,  281;  general  character,  281; 
unity  of  subject,  282;  complex  sub- 
jects, 282;  chronological  order,  282; 
qualities  of  historical  composition, 
283;  keeping  up  the  connection  of 
events,  283 ;  dulness  to  beavoidei  283 ; 
gravity  of  style,  283  ;  delineation  of 
characters,  284;  sound  morals  to  be 
enforced,  284;  relation  to  annals, 
memoirs,  and  biography,  285. 

Holland,  example  of  metaphor,  157, 185 ; 
simile,  186. 

Holmes,  examples  of  simile,  184;  a  hu- 
morist, 208. 

Homer's  Iliad,  one  of  the  three  great 
epics,  251. 

Hood,  specimens  of  pun,  204  ;  a  humor- 
ist, 208;  versification  of  Bridge  of 
Sighs,  219 ;  specimen  of  verse,  24i. 

■ECookf  specimen  of  pun,  204. 


INDEX. 


371 


Horace,  his  dictum  in  regard  to  new 
words,  72 ;  as  a  writer  of  odes,  257 ; 
Art  of  Poetry  a  didactic  poem,  260. 

Some  Tooke.    (See  Tooke.) 

Hugo,  Victor,  excessive  use  of  antithe- 
sis, 162. 

Sutnanitarian,  used  incorrectly,  77. 

Humor,  how  far  like  wit,  206 ;  incon- 
gruity an  element  of  humor,  206; 
surprise,  206 ;  contempt  an  ingredient 
in  humor,  207;  humor  something 
characteristic,  207 ;  humor  kindly,  208. 

Hymns,  216;  abound  in  exclamation, 
167;  a  species  of  lyric  poetry,  257; 
Latin  rhyming  hymns,  220;  construc- 
tion of  the  hymn  stanzas,  281 ;  long, 
short,  common,  particular,  hallelu- 
jah metres,  etc.,  231-234;  nomencla- 
ture proposed  for  the  8"s,  7's,  etc.,  233. 

Hl/Jierbole,  169 ;  explanation,  169;  cau- 
tion in  regard  to  the  use  of  hyper- 
bole, 169 ;  hyperbole  of  the  imagina- 
tion distinguished  from  that  of  pas- 
sion, 170;  school-girl  hyperbole,  170; 
example  from  Young,  181. 

Iambus,  216;  iambic  verse,  216,  218; 
blank  verse  usually  iambic,  225. 

Hind,  Homer's,  one  of  the  three  great 
epics  of  the  world,  251. 

Imaginary  Subjects  for  compositions, 
30.5-309. 

Imagination,  necessity  of  an  excited 
and  a  creative  imagination  in  order  to 
the  production  of  poetry,  250. 

Impulse,  vocal,  211 ;  the  origin  of  syl- 
lables, 211 ;  strong  and  light  impulses, 
211 ;  time  between  impulses,  211. 

Inaugurate,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Incite,  distinguished  from  excite,  81. 

Incongruity,  an  element  of  humor,  206. 

Index,  (printer's  term,)  57. 

India,  its  language,  339-341. 

Iixdo-European,fa,m\\Y  of  languages, 
344. 

Infection,  different  from  eontagion,SO. 

Inflexible,  different  from  inexorable, 
79. 

Ingelow,  Jean,  example  of  metaphor, 
183. 

Initials,t\ie  inconvenience  of  signingthe 
initials  only  of  one's  first  name,  266. 

Insolent,  how  used  by  Milton,  75. 

Instance,  distinguished  from  exam- 
ple, 81. 

Intensify,  coined  by  Coleridge,  69  ; 
idiom,  ignore,  70;  ivory-type,  70. 


Intermediate  expressions,  different 
from  restrictive  clauses,  22;  require 
commas,  22. 

Interrogation  point,  ^2,  ^Z;  when  to 
be  followed  by  a  capital,  and  when 
not,  42 ;  interrogation  as  a  figure  of 
speech,  165  ;  peculiarities,  166 ;  akin 
to  exclamation,  166;  example  from 
Bible,  175. 

Invent,  different  from  discover,  80. 

Invention,  a  division  of  rhetoric,  why 
treated  last,  14 ;  defined,  293 ;  mis- 
take of  the  older  writers  in  regard  to 
invention,  293;  its  true  office,  294; 
comparative  importance,  294;  how 
treated  in  this  book,  294. 

Inve^'sion,  sometimes  useful  in  making 
a  sentence  emphatic,  113  ;  inversion 
produced  by  using  "  there  "  and  "  it," 
113. 

Invite,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Iranic,  languages,  342. 

Iri^sh,  or  Erse,  langtiage,  342. 

Irony, jx  figure  of  speech,  170, 171 ;  ex- 
amples, 170,  171,  183. 

Irving,  instance  of  harmonious  sen- 
tences, 137 ;  a,  humorist,  208 ;  his 
skill  in  the  use  of  words,  303. 

Italic,  languages,  342. 

Italics,  .58;  marking  emphatic  words 
with  italics,  115. 

Japhetic,  family  of  languages,  344. 

tfesus  Christ,  the  sublimity  of  his  ut- 
terances, 185. 

J'ohnson,  example  of  balanced  sentence, 
94;  harmonious  sentence,  136;  his 
Latinized  diction,  360. 

tTunius,  example  of  balanced  sentence, 
94;  metaphors,  157. 

Ken,  a  writer  of  hymns,  257. 

Kill,  how   diff'erent  from    murder    and 

assassinate,  80. 
Kindness,  characteristic  of  humor  and 

of  the  humorists,  208. 
Kingly,  how  differing  from  regal  and 

royal,  80. 

lady  of  the  lake,  versification  of,  218. 

Iamb,  a  humorist,  208. 

lampoon,  260. 

langitage,  Usathe  law  of,  84;  essay  on 

the  English  language,  337-363. 
iMtham,  on  the  English  language,  338^ 

352. 
latin,  languages,  342;    migrations  of 


372 


INDEX. 


the  Latin  race,  348 ;  effect  of  the  study 
of  Latin  on  English,  356-369;  pro- 
portion of  Latin  words  in  the  English, 
358,  359 ;  Latinizing  tendencies  of  the 
language,  356-363;  classification  of 
the  Latin-Englich  words,  359. 
JLatins  and  OreeTcs  used  greater  va- 
riety of  feet  than  we  do,  216;  Latin 
rhyming  hymns,  220 ;  Latin  verse  syl- 
labic, not  accentual,  235. 
Jjays,   Macaulay'a,    peculiarity   of  the 

verse,  216,  217. 
ZieaderSf  (printer's  term,)  58. 
XiCadSf  (printer's  term,)  59. 
Zjectures,  289. 

Xce,  F.  6.,  specimen  of  verse,  248. 
Xeihnitz,  first  shook  the  old  theory  of 

language,  339. 
Jjetters,  261-270;  letter-writing  an  im- 
portant part  of  composition,  261; 
variety  of  style  required,  261 ;  Blair's 
recommendations,  262 ;  correspond- 
ence, 262;  letters  of  distinguished 
persons,  262;  what  is  required  in  a 
letter,  262;  what  letters  are  best,  262; 
carelessness  in  letters,  263  ;  forms  re- 
quired, 263;  the  heading,  263,  264; 
the  street,  number,  state,  etc.,  263; 
contractions,  264;  reasons  for  par- 
ticularity, 264;  the  date,  264;  form 
of  the  heading,  264 ;  the  aSdress,  265 ; 
military  form,  265  ;  form  for  ordinary 
letters,  265 ;  for  business  letters,  266 ; 
the  subscription,  266,  267;  inconve- 
nience of  signing  the  initials  only  of 
one's  first  name,  266 ;  sex,  how  to  be 
distinguished  in  the  signature  to  a 
letter,  267 ;  married  women  and  wid- 
ows, their  signatures,  267 ;  terms  of 
endearment  in  a  signature,  267;  ar- 
rangement of  the  signature,  167 ;  ex- 
amples, 267;  superscription,  or  ad- 
dress of  a  letter,  268-270;  why  im- 
portant, 268;  penmanship  in  address- 
ing a  letter,  268;  nicknames  and 
fancy  naraos  not  allowable  on  the 
outside  of  a  letter,  260 ;  professional 
titles,  how  to  be  given  in  the  address, 
269;  how  to  address  a  clergyman,  a 
governor,  a  president,  etc.,  269  ;  how  to 
arrange  the  items  on  the  envelope,  270. 
JAhe  and  as  confounded,  76. 
lATceness,  how  related  to  simile,  151. 
Idne,     synonymous    with     verse,    214; 

lengths  of  line,  215. 
XA/ng%iistica,  the  newest  of  the  sciences, 


337 ;  its  scope,  337 ;  recent  works  on 
the  subject,  338. 

Idnguistic  studies  enlarge  one's  vo- 
cabulary, 57. 

Idon,  sublime,  190. 

Liquidate,  meaning  changed,  75. 

lAquid  sounds,  how  far  desirable,  134, 
135. 

JLocomotive,  an  example  of  the  sub- 
lime, 189;  its  shriek  not  sublime,  191. 

Zogic,  related  to  rhetoric,  13, 14. 

Ziongfellotv,  sound  adapted  to  sense, 
139;  far-fetched  simile,  153;  meta- 
phor, 182,  183,  184,  185;  Hiawatha, 
its  versification,  226  ;  Evangeline,  its 
versification,  226,  227  ;  fine  specimen 
of  mixed  verse,  in  the  Golden  Legend, 
228;  examples  of  versification,  242, 
245,  246,  247. 

JLonginus,  his  comment  on  the  sublimi- 
ty of  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis,  194. 

Ijong  metre,  formula  given,  231. 

Loose  sentences,  88;  uses,  88 ;  dangers, 
89 ;  examples  from  Milton,  Macaulay, 
and  Trench,  90. 

Lowell,  James  Russell,  examples  of  me- 
taphor, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 
179,185,  186;  a  humorist,  208;  Com- 
memoration Ode,  257  ;  as  an  essayist, 
279. 

Lucid,  luminous,  how  differing,  80. 

lAicy  Larconi,  specimen  of  versifica- 
tion, 239. 

Li/ricpo€tri/,  abounds  in  exclamations, 
166 ;  discussed,  256-258.  (See  Poetry.) 

Macaulay,  examples  of  periodic  sen- 
tences, 89 ;  skill  in  the  management  of 
long  periods,  119,  120;  simile,  179; 
lays  in  heptameter  verse,  216,  217; 
review  of  Milton,  276. 

Malice,  malevolence,  malignity,  how  dif- 
fering, 80. 

Married  women,  how  to  sign  their 
names  in  letter-writing,  267. 

Marsh,  Professor,  recommends  extem- 
poraneous translation  as  a  means  of 
extending  one's  command  of  words, 
67 ;  Lectures  on  the  English  Lan- 
guage, 338. 

Masse^l,  Gerald,  faulty  metaphor,  158. 

Matln^natieal  figures,  how  far  co»« 
sistent  with  beauty,  197. 

Matln/e,  afternoon  (?),  78. 

Meditative  poetry,  260. 

Melodratna,  266. 


INDEX. 


373 


Xentoirs,  how  related  to  history  and 
biography,  385. 

JHemortf,  outline  for  composition  on  it, 
304. 

Metaphor,  154r-159 ;  difference  between 
metaphor  and  simile,  155  ;  effective- 
ness of  metaphor,  155;  rules  com- 
mon to  metaphor  and  simile,  156 ; 
metaphorical  and  literal  should  not 
be  mixed,  156;  examples  of  meta- 
phor, 157 ;  mixed  metaphors,  157  ; 
crowded  metaphors,  158;  straining 
the  metaphor,  159 ;  difference  between 
metaphor  and  allegory,  159 ;  examples 
from  Joanna  Baillie,  181 ;  Bible,  171, 
172,  176;  Browning,  Mrs.,  178,  182; 
Bulwer,  180;  Byron,  181;  Cowper, 
^  180;  Dryden,  172,  175 :  Goldsmith, 
181 ;  Gray,  181 ;  HoliandjxlSS ;  Jean 
Ingelow,  183 ;  Longfellow,  182;  tSd', 
184,  185 ;  Lowell,  172-179,  185,  186 ; 
Milton,  180,  181-;  Moore,  180;  Pope, 
174;  Shakspeare,  171,  174,  178,  180, 
181,  184;  Tennyson,  186;  Tribune, 
N.  Y.,  171 ;  Whittier,  179 ;  Willis,  182 ; 
Young,  172, 173, 174, 175,  180. 

Metonymy,  164;  kinds  of  metonymy 
with  examples,  164, 165, 182. 

Metres,  psalms  and  hymns,  mode  of 
designating  them,  231-234. 

Metrical  chronicle,  254. 

Metrical  romance,  akin  to  the  epic, 
254. 

Military  form  in  addressing  letters, 
265. 

Milton,  examples  of  periodic  sentence, 
88,  89 ;  instance  of  euphony,  136 ; 
prose  writings  rhythmical,  137;  sound 
adapted  to  sense,  139;  similes,  151, 
152;  metaphor,  173;  personification, 
173 ;  metaphor,  180  ;  simile,  181 ;  sub- 
lime description,  193;  Paradise  Lost 
in  blank  verse,  225  ;  a  better  rhythm- 
ist  than  Pope  and  Dryden,  236;  ex- 
ample of  versification,  242 ;  Paradise 
Lost  one  of  the  three  great  epics  of 
the  world,  251 ;  Lycidas,  an  elegy, 
258 ;  Macaulay's  review  of,  276. 

Miracles  of  Christ  sublime,  195. 

Miscellaneous  subjects  for  composi- 
tion, 328-333. 

Missionaries,  English  and  American, 
the  means  of  linguistic  research, 
339. 

Mixed  verse,  22&-228;    English  verse 

32*      . 


compared  with  classic  in  regard  to 
mixed  verse,  227. 

Modern  verse,  distinguished  from  the 
classic,  235,  236 ;  requirements  in  re- 
gard to  elision,  237. 

Monometer  verse,  216,  218. 

Montgomery,  a  hymn  writer,  257. 

Moon,  criticism  on  Dean  Alford,  107; 
The  Dean's  English,  338. 

Moon,  Man  in  the  Moon,  compositions 
on  it,  305-309. 

Moore,  Thomas,  metaphor,  180;  exam- 
ples of  versification,  241, 247 ;  a  writer 
of  songs,  257. 

Moral  greatness,  sublime,  191 ;  ex- 
amples, 192 ;  moral  beauty,  199 ;  mo- 
ral odes,  257. 

Motion,  a  source  of  beauty,  198. 

Muller,  Max,^works  on  the  Science  of 
■^Language,  338. 

Murder,  how  differing  from  Tiill  and 
assassinate,  80. 

JfufKo^j^jtsed  improperly  -for  common, 
76. 

Names,  how  to  be  given  in  addressing 
letters,  268. 

Napoleon,  reference  to  the  pyramids, 
sublime,  193. 

Narratives,  personal,  an  exercise  in 
composition,  313;  examples,  313-817. 

National  use  of  words,  as  opposed  to 
local,  72. 

Neither,  used  incorrectly,  77. 

News,  272;  literary  character  of  news- 
writing,  272;  things  to  be  aimed  at 
by  the  news-writer,  272;  accuracy, 
273;  condensation,  273  perspicuity, 
274 ;  news  different  from  other  read- 
ing, 274. 

Newton,  a  hymn-writer,  257. 

Night,  awful,  190. 

Norman  invasion,  its  effects  on  the  lan- 
guage, 353-355. 

Norton,  Mrs.,  specimen  of  versification 
and  stanza,  246. 

Notes,  to  be  taken  on  the  spot,  when  we 
wish  to  describe,  322. 

Numbers,  represented  by  capital  letters, 
60;  a  name  for  accentual  divisions, 
212. 

Numerals,  punctuation  of,  32. 

Olyects,  composition  on,  295. 
Obscurity,  an  element  of  the  Bublims^ 
190. 


374 


INDEX 


Obsolete  tvords,  rule  in  regard  to  them, 

69. 
Obstacle,  how  differing  from  diffi,<nilty, 

80. 

Occasion,  opportunity,  how  differing, 
80. 

Octave,  the  major  division  of  the  sonnet, 
230. 

Only,  how  differing  from  alone,  80. 

Opera,  69,  256. 

Orations,  288. 

Oratory,  not  included  in  this  work,  13. 

Ossian,  simile,  151;  metaphor,  157. 

Outline,  the  preparation  of  one  neces- 
sary in  beginning  to  write  composi- 
tions, 295 ;  specimens  of  outlines,  295, 
297,  299,  301,  302,  304. 

Outsider,  when  coined,  69. 

JPale,  pallid,  tvan,  how  differing,  80. 

Talmer,  Ray,  as  a  hymnist,  257. 

Paper,  composition  on,  296. 

iParahlc,  akin  to  allegory  and  fable,  160 ; 
where  found,  160. 

Paradise  Ijost,  one  of  the  three  great 
epics  of  the  world,  251. 

Paradox,  apparent,  in  the  effect  of  con- 
junctions, 128. 

Paragraph,  57. 

Parallelism  of  the  Hebrew  poetry,  95. 

Parenthesis,  50-52 ;  different  from  pa- 
renthetical expression,  20;  origin  of 
the  word,  50 ;  difference  between  pa- 
renthesis and  marks  of  p.,  50 ;  danger 
in  using  parenthetical  clauses,  121 ; 
Blair's  opinion  of  them,  122. 

Parenthetical  expressions,  ex- 
plained, 20 ;  requiring  a  comma,  20 ; 
requiring  dashes,  48. 

ParUer,  Archbishop,  example  of  sec- 
tional rhyme,  224. 

Participial  construction,  how  em- 
ployed in  producing  emphasis,  114. 

Pastoral  poetry,  25^.    (See  Poetry.) 

Pedantry  in  the  use  of  foreign  words, 
68. 

Pell-mell,  used  incorrectly,  77. 

Penmanship,  in  addressing  a  letter, 
268. 

Pentameter,  216,  218  ;  blank  verso  usu- 
ally pentameter,  225. 

Period,  39-42;  derivation  and  meaning 
of  the  word,  39 ;  used  after  abbrevia- 
tions, 40 ;  per  cent.,  or  per  cent,  41 ; 
use  of  parenthesis  in  reporting 
speeches,  51 ;  in  scientific  ennmera- 
tioas,  51 ;  requires  a  capital  after  it,  CO. 


Periodic  sentence,  87;    example  from 

Temple,  87 ;  from  Milton,  88* 
Peroration,  291. 

Persia^  its  ancient  inhabitants  and  lan- 
guage, 342. 

Persians,  prevalence  of  rhyme,  222. 

Personal  narratives,  as  exercises  in 
composition,  313  ;  examples,  313-317. 

Personification,  distinguished  from 
apostrophe,  167;  special  facilities  in 
English  for  personification,  168 ;  vari- 
ous kinds  and  degrees  of  it,  168,  169; 
example  from  Bible,  172;  from  Bryant, 
173;  from  Milton,  173;  Bible,  179. 

Perspicuity,  importance  of,  105. 

Phrases,  when  parenthetical,  20,  21. 

Piers  PlouffJiman,  example  of  allitera- 
tive verse,  222. 

Pilgrim's  Progress,  the  most  perfect 
allegofy  in  literature,  160. 

Pindar,  odes,  257. 

Plagiarism,  what  it  is,  55. 

Please,  the  primary  object  of  poetry,  to 
please,  250. 

Poe,  sound  adapted  to  sense,  139 ;  versifi- 
cation of  the  Raven,  217,  247. 

Poetry,  punctuation  of,  61 ;  Hebrew,  95; 
different    from   verse,   209;    poetical 
form  more  pleasing  than  the  prose 
form  for  the  same  thought,  209,  210; 
poetry  differs  from  prose  in  the  greater 
perfection  of  its  rhythm,  213;  more 
general  term  than  verse,  214;  defec- 
tive definitions  ol  poetry,  249 ;  differ- 
ence between  poetry  and  what  is  poet- 
ical, 249 ;  verse  indispensable  to  poetry, 
249;  when  any  composition  is  poetical 
In  essence,  250;  poetical  distinguished 
from  prosaic,  250    origin  of  the  word 
poet,  250;   definition  of  poetrj',  251; 
relation  to  the  other  arts,  251 ;  epic 
poetry,  251-254;    high   character  of 
the  epic,  251     the  subject  should  be 
great,  251;    unity  of  the  epic,  252 
method  of  narration  in  the  epic,  252 
the  epic  must  have  a  hero,  253 ;  must 
have  a  plot,  253 ;  must  be  serious,  253 
must  have  a  story,  253;  metrical  ro 
mances  near  akin  to  the  epic,  264 
dramatic  poetry,  254-256 ;  likeness  to 
epic,  254;  dramatic  unities,  254,255 
acts    and    scenes,  255;    tragedy  and 
comedy,  265 ;  Greek  dramatists,  255 
Shakspeare,  the  greatest  of  drama- 
tists, 255;   farce,   opera,   melodrama, 
260;  lyric  poetry,  256-268;  lyric  po» 


INDEX. 


375 


etry  the  oldest  kind  in  every  nation, 
256;  differing  from  epic,  256;  odes, 
256-258;  sacred  odes,  256 ;  psalms  and 
hymns,  257  ;  hymn  writers,  257 ;  he- 
roic odes,  257  ;  comic  songs,  258  ;  Bac- 
chanalian songs,  258;  sonnets,  258; 
elegy,  2o8 ;  epitaph,  259 ;  pastoral  po- 
etry, 259;  Theocritus  and  Virgil,  259; 
Spenser's  Shepherd's  Calendar,  259; 
eclogues,  259;  idyls,  259;  didactic 
poetry,  259 ;  poetry  less  affected  with 
Latinisms  than  prose,  361. 

Polysyndeton,  128. 

Fope,  Alexander,  his  rule  in  regard  to 
use  of  new  words,  71;  balanced  sen- 
tences, 94;  inversion,  113;  sound 
adapted  to  sense,  139;  belittling  sim- 
ile, 154;  mixed  metaphor,  157 ;  meta- 
phor, 174;  simile,  180;  alliteration, 
222;  mistake  in  regard  to  the  true 
genius  of  English  verse,  236;  essay 
on  criticism,  an  example  of  didactic 
poetry,  260 ;  Essay  on  Man,  meditative 
poetry,  260. 

Posture  of  devotion,  how  differing  from 
attitude,  79. 

Pouring,  more  precise  than  tuiming 
out,  79. 

Power,  an  element  of  the  sublime,  189 ; 
a  locomotive  and  train  as  an  example 
of  power,  189;  steam  hammers,  189; 
various  natural  objects,  189,  190;  the 
war-horse,  190. 

Precision  of  diction,  79-83;  meaning 
of  the  term,  79 ;  examples  of  words 
not  used  precisely,  79  ;  precision  pro- 
moted by  use  of  synonyms,  79. 

Predicate,  principal  p.  in  the  sentence, 
the  place  for  it,  112,  114;  skill  in  dis- 
posing of  the  principal  predicate  im- 
portant in  elocution,  115. 

Predicate,  used  for  predict,  75;  for 
founded,  77  ;  for  presage,  79. 

Preposition,  ending  a  sentence  with,  130. 

Present  use  of  a  word,  as  opposed  to 
obsolete,  72, 

President,  true  etiquette  in  addressing 
him,  269. 

Prevent,  meaning  changed,  75. 

Procter,  Adelaide,  specimen  of  verse,  245. 

Professional  titles,  in  addressing  let- 
ters, 269. 

Promise,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Pronouns,  misplacement  of  them  causes 
ambijfuity,  107-109. 


I  Proper  names  require  capitals,  61,  62. 
I  Propriety  of  diction,  74-79. 

Prose,  less  rhythmic  than  poetry,  213; 
prose  composition,  261-292;  letters, 
261-270;  diaries,  271,  272;  news,  272- 
274;  editorials,  274-276;  reviews,  276- 
278;  essays,  278,  279;  treatises,  279, 
280;  travels,  280,281;  history,  281- 
284;  annals,  284;  memoirs,  285;  bi- 
ography, 285;  fiction,  286,  287;  dis- 
courses, 288-292. 

Provoke,  how  used  formerly,  75. 

Pruning,  needed,  126;  striking  out 
"  very,"  etc.,  127. 

Psalms  and  hymns,  the  construction 
of  their  stanzas,  231 ;  long,  short, 
common,  particular  metres,  etc.,  231- 
234;  a  part  of  lyric  poetry,  257. 

Punctuation,l'I-oO;  defined,  17;  origin 
of  the  word,  17 ;  invented  by  Aldus 
Manutius,  17;  points  used  for  gram- 
matical rather  than  elocutionary  pur- 
poses, 18;  list  of  the  points,  18,  19. 

Purity  of  diction,  68-74. 

Pyramids,  Napoleon's  reference  to 
them  sublime,  193. 

Quatrain,  defined,  215. 

Questions,  when  to  be  followed  by  an 
interrogation  point,  and  when  not, 
43  ;  question  and  answer  followed  by 
dash,  49 ;  when  to  begin  with  a  capi- 
tal, 60. 

Quintilian,  rule  about  ambiguity,  105. 

Quotations,  54,  57 ;  short  quotations 
require  comma,  31 ;  quotations,  when 
preceded  by  a  colon,  36  ;  rule  for  the 
use  of  quotations,  54 ;  use  of  single 
commas  instead  of  double  in  quoting, 
55 ;  plagiarism,  55  ;  quotation  inside 
of  another  quotation,  55 ;  quotation 
marks  at  the  beginning  of  every  line 
discouraged,  56 ;  quotation,  when  to 
begin  with  a  capital,  60. 

Rabbit  and  Cat,  described,  as  an  ex- 
ercise in  composition,  323. 

Jtead,  T.  Buchanan,  Sheridan's  Ride  a 
specimen  of  mixed  verse,  228. 

Mecotnmend,  used  incorrectly,  77. 

Medundancy,  effect  of,  125  ;  source  of, 
126;  danger  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, 126. 

Megal,  royal,  kingly,  how  distin^ 
guished,  80. 

Regularity  of  figure  pleasing,  197. 


376 


INDEX. 


Melative  clauses,  require  comma,  24; 
danger  of  making  the  sentence  compli- 
cated, 121 ;  how  to  be  prevented,  121. 

Melative  pronouns,  often  improperly 
omitted,  126. 

Jteligiotis  fiction,  287. 

Jteplace,  peculiar  use  of  the  word,  76. 

Meputable  use  of  a  word,  as  opposed  to 
vulgar,  72. 

Mesent,  meaning  changed,  75. 

JResidence,  how  to  be  given  in  address- 
ing a  letter,  269. 

Jtespectively  for  respectfully,  76. 

Restrictive  clauses  distinguished  from 
intermediate,  22 ;  distinguished  from 
relative,  24,  25. 

Meviews,  276 ;  description  of  a  review, 
276 ;  Macaulay's  review  of  Milton, 
277  ;  other  reviewers,  278 ;  Edinburgh 
Review,  278. 

Jthetoric,  defined,  13 ;  related  to  gram- 
mar and  logic,  14 ;  divisions,  14  ;  com- 
pared to  architecture,  187. 

Bhyme,  220-225 ;  origin  of  rhyme,  220 ; 
Latin  rhymes,  220 ;  etymology  of  the 
word,  221 ;  definition  of  rhyme,  221 ; 
location  of  rhyme,  221 ;  single,  double, 
etc.,  221 ;  rhyme  at  beginning  of  a 
word,  221 ;  conditions  of  rhyme,  223 ; 
usual  place  of  the  rhyme,  224;  sec- 
tional rhyme,  225. 

Jthythm,  on  what  it  depends,  213 ;  ex- 
ists in  both  prose  and  poetry, -213; 
difference  between  prose  and  poetry 
as  to  rhythm,  213;  a  source  of  pleas- 
ure, 213;  definition  of  rhythm,  214; 
requirements  of  modern  verse  in  re- 
gard to  rhythm,  237,  238. 

Jthythm-royal,  the  Chaucerian  stan- 
za, its  construction  explained,  229. 

Might,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Jtoffers's  Pleasures  of  the  Memory,  260. 

Moget,  Thesaurus  of  English  Words,  use- 
ful in  studying  synonyms,  80. 

Jtollo,  invasion  and  settlement  of  Nor- 
mandy, 355. 

Monian,  migrations  of  the  race,  348 ;  set- 
tlement in  Spain,  Gaul,  and  Britain, 
348,  349 ;  words  left  in  Britain  by  the 
early  conquest,  350. 

Jtoniance,  metrical,  254. 

Jttmning  titles,  58. 

Sanskrit,  its  discovery  by  Europeans, 
840 ;  the  linguistic  theory  to  which  it 
has  givou  rise,  341. 


Satire,  260. 

Savage  races,  addicted  to  the  use  of 

figures,  148. 

Saxe,  a  humorist,  208 ;  specimen  of  ver- 
sification, 245,  247. 

Saxon  alliterative  verse,  222  (See 
Anglo-Saxon.) 

Scandinavian  languages,  343. 

Scenes  in  dramatic  poetry,  255. 

Scheie  de  Vere,  Studies  in  English,  338. 

Scholarsliip,  a  means  of  corrupting  the 
language,  358. 

ScientiftCf  how  differing  from  the  beau- 
tiful, 200. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  versification  of  the 
boat-song  in  Lady  of  the  Lake,  218 ; 
examples  of  double  rhymes,  221 ;  sec- 
tional rhymes,  224 ;  his  metrical  ro- 
mances, 254. 

Sculptor',  69 ;  sentimental,  70. 

Section,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Semicolon,  pp.  32-36;  word  explained, 
32. 

Sentences,  87-144;  periodic,  87;  loose, 
88;  balanced,  93;  short  and  long,  95; 
rules  for  the  construction  of  sen- 
tences, 99;  clearness,  99;  emphasis, 
112;  unity,  118;  strength,  125;  har- 
mony, 134;  long  sentences,  how  to 
maintain  their  unity,  118 ;  sometimea 
to  be  broken  into  several,  120. 

Sertnons,  289. 

Sestette,  a  division  of  the  sonnet,  230. 

Settle,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Sex,  how  to  be  distinguished  in  the  sig- 
nature to  a  letter,  270. 

Shaftesbury,  example  of  misplaced 
adverb,  100 ;  example  of  skilful  con- 
struction, 116. 

Shakspeare,  example  of  metaphor,  156, 
156,  157,  174,  178,180,  181;  simile,  181, 
183;  sonnets  punning  on  his  own 
name,  205 ;  alliteration,  222 ;  plays  in 
blank  verse,  225;  example  of  Chau- 
cerian stanza,  or  rhythm-royal,  229; 
freedom  of  his  verse,  237  ;  on  poetical 
imagination,  250 ;  the  greatest  of  dra- 
matists, 255;  purity  of  his  English, 
360. 

Shelley's  Adonais,  an  elegy  in  the  Spen- 
serian stanza,  258. 

Sheinitic  languages,  344. 

Sheiudan's  Hide,  T.  B.  Read,  a  speci- 
men of  mixed  verse,  227. 

Sherlock,  example  of  pronoun  miaplactd, 
109. 


INDEX. 


877 


Short  and  long  sentences,  59-79 ;  rule 
on  the  subject,  96 ;  dififereuce  of  French 
and  German  writers  in  this  respect, 
95 ;  Bishop  Doane's  short  sentences, 
96. 

Sighs,  Bridge  of,  versification  of,  219. 

Signature  to  a  letter,  266,  267. 

Simile,  150-154 ;  why  similes  please,  154 ; 
burlesque  similes,  151;  object  of  sim- 
ile, 151;  mere  likeness  not  simile,  151 ; 
example  from  Ossian,  151;  rules  for 
simile,  152-154  ;  likeness  should  not  be 
too  near,  152 ;  a  likeness  that  surprises, 
152;  trite  similes,  152;  s.  far-fetched, 
152;  likeness  to  things  with  which  com- 
mon readers  are  unacquainted,  153; 
likeness  to  things  mean  and  low,  153 ; 
similes  inappropriate  to  strong  pas- 
sion, 154;  difference  between  s.  and 
metaphor,  155 ;  example  of  simile, 
from  Bible,  177  ;  Drj-den,  174,  175 ; 
Goldsmith,  181 ;  Heber,  184  ;  Holland, 
186;  Holmes,  184;  Longfellow,  185; 
Macaulay,  179;  Shakspeare,  174,  181, 
183;  Willis,  182. 

Simplicity  necessary  to  the  sublime, 
194. 

Slavonic  languages,  343. 

Solitude  and  silence  inspire  awe,  190. 

Songs,  a  species  of  lyric,  257,  258. 

Sonnet  stanza,  its  construction  ex- 
plained, 230 ;  a  species  of  lyric,  258. 

Sophocles,  255. 

Sound,  mere  sound  of  words  not  to  be 
disregarded,  134 ;  adapted  to  the  sense, 
138,  139;  great  variety  of  sound  ad- 
missible in  the  higher  kind  of  har- 
mony, 138  ;  loudness  of  sound  an  ele- 
ment of  the  sublime,  191. 

SpeecJies,  289. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  metaphor,  155. 

Spenser,  author  of  the  Spenserian 
stanza,  229;  freedom  of  his  verse, 
237 ;  position  of  the  Faerie  Queene, 
254;  Hymns  on  Love  and  Beauty, 
257 ;  Shepherd's  Calendar,  259. 

Splitting  particles,  127. 

Squinting  construction,  104. 

Stanza,  defined,  215,  229;  Chaucerian 
stanza,  or  rhythm-royal,  229  ;  Spense- 
rian stanza,  230  ;  sonnet  stanza,  230 ; 
psalm  and  hymn  stanzas,  231. 

Starvation,  when  coined,  69. 

State,  care  aboiit  contracting  the  name, 
in  heading  and  addressing  a  letter, 
264,  270. 


Station,  how  used  by  Shakspeare,  75. 

Steani-hatn^ners,  an  example  of  the 
sublime,  189. 

Stopping,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Story,  a  story  needed  as  a  main  element 
in  the  epic,  but  not  in  lyric,  didactic, 
pastoral,  etc.,  253. 

Strength  of  sentences,  125-134;  af- 
fected by  redundant  words,  125;  by 
the  use  of  "  very,"  etc.,  126 ;  by  skill 
in  using  the  words  of  connection  and 
transition,  126 ;  by  the  mode  of  bring- 
ing to  a  conclusion,  129 ;  by  contrasted 
changes,  131;  by  climax,  131. 

Style,  a  division  of  rhetoric,  14;  why 
treated  before  Invention,  14;  origin 
of  the  word,  15;  relations  of  style  to 
invention,  16;  topics  included  iu 
style,  16 ;  special  properties  of  style, 
187-208. 

Subject,  place  of  the  principal  s.  in  the 
sentence,  112, 113 ;  not  necessarily  the 
grammatical  subject,  112;  important 
for  the  emphasis,  113;  change  of  a. 
breaks  the  unity  of  sentence,  119; 
subject  of  discourse  should  be  beauti- 
ful, 200. 

Siibjects  for  compositions,  297,  801, 
304,  310,  321,  327,  329-333. 

Sublimity,  188-196;  how  we  get  the 
idea  of  sublimity,  188 ;  how  defined, 
188;  elements  of  the  sublime:  1. 
vastness,  188 ;  2.  power,  189 ;  3.  awful- 
ness,  190;  4.  obscurity,  190;  5.  loud- 
ness of  sound,  191;  6.  moral  great- 
ness, 191 ;  the  sublime  in  writing,  192; 
sublimity  of  subject,  192 ;  vivid  con- 
ception of  strong  points,  192 ;  suppres- 
sion of  belittling  details,  193 ;  sim- 
plicity of  expression,  194;  sublimity 
destroyed  by  use  of  too  many  wo7-d3, 
195  ;  relation  of  sublimity  to  beauty, 
196. 

Sufficient,  distinguished  from  enoughf 
81. 

Suicide,  69. 

Sunday-school  story-books,  287. 

Superscription  or  address  of  a  letter, 
268-270. 

Supplementary  clauses  objection- 
able, 122 ;  Blair  on  the  subject,  122. 

Surpinse,  an  element  in  simile,  152 ;  an 
element  of  wit,  202;  an  element  of 
humor,  206. 

Swift,   example   of  misplaced   adverb^ 


378 


INDEX. 


100;  adverbial  clause  misplaced,  102; 
misplacement  of  the  relative  pronoun, 
108;  want  of  unity,  118;  sentence 
with  unconnected  things  crowded 
together,  120;  crowded  metaphor, 
158 ;  metaphor,  180. 

Sydney  Stnith,  illustrations  of  wit, 
202 ;  advantages  and  disadvantages  of 
being  witty,  205,  206  ;  observation  on 
humor,  207  ;  as  a  reviewer,  278. 

Syllable,  the  measure  of  a  vocal  im- 
pulse, 211 ;  syllabic  A-erse  distinguished 
from  accented,  235,  236. 

Synecdoche  explained,  165. 

Synonyms,  the  study  of  them  promotes 
precision,  79;  character  of  the  Eng- 
lish language  in  regard  to  synonyms, 
79 ;  books  on  the  subject,  80 ;  English 
particularly  favorable  to  synonyms, 
S63. 

Taylor,  B  F.  specimen  of  Terse, 
245. 

Teachers,  notes  to,  21,  41,  74,  77,  295, 
296,  297,  299,  301,  304,  305,  313. 

Temple,  Sir  William,  example  of  periodic 
sentence,  87. 

Tennyson,  sound  adapted  to  sense,  139, 
.  140 ;  example  of  metaphor,  186 ; 
Charge  of  Light  Brigade,  versification 
of,  220  ;  example  of  sectional  rhyme, 
225;  examples  of  versification,  241, 
242 ;  Idyls  of  the  King,  254,  259 ;  In 
Memoriam,  an  Elegy,  258. 

Tetrameter,  216,  218. 

Teutonic  languages,  342. 

Thacheray,  a  humoi-ist,  208. 

Tlieocritus,  a  pastoral  poet,  259. 

Thersites,  in  the  Iliad,  not  inconsistent 
with  the  epic,  253. 

Thomson's  Seasons,  260. 

JJiormiffhly,  09. 

TJitmder  and  lightning,  sublime, 
189 ;  Byron's  description  of  a  thunder- 
storm, 193. 

Tlllotson,  example  of  pronoun  misplaced, 
107 ;  inharmonious  sentence,  137. 

Time,  an  interval  between  vocal  im- 
pulses, 211. 

Timid,  70. 

Title-pages,  punctuation  of,  37,  39,  40. 

Titles,  in  addressing  letters,  268,  269, 

Titles,  punctuation  of,  39,  40,  49,  59,  60, 
62. 

TooTce,  Horno,  example  of  pun,  204. 


Total,  distinguished  from  whole,  en» 
tire,  complete,  80. 

Tragedy,  255, 

Transactions,  composition  on,  299. 

Translation,  extemporaneous,  useful 
for  acquiring  command  of  words,  67. 

Transpire,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Travelling,  outline  for  composition  on 
it,  301. 

Travels,  280;  importance  of  accuracy, 
280. 

Treatises,  279;  how  differing  from  es- 
says, 280 ;  text-books,  280. 

Trench,  Archdeacon,  on  the  Study  of 
Words,  338;  examples  of  loose  sen- 
tences, 90,  91. 

Tribune,  example  of  metaphor,  171. 

Trip  from  Philadelphia  to  Trenton,  de- 
scribed, 317. 

Triplet,  defined,  215. 

Trite  similes,  152. 

Trochee,  216  ;  trochaic  verse,  216,  218 ; 
trochaic  metres  for  hymns,  how  de- 
signated, 233. 

Tropes,  how  related  to  figures,  148. 

Truism,  used  incorrectly,  78. 

Tuchertnan,  as  an  essayist,  279. 

Turning  out,  less  precise  than  powr- 
ing,  79. 

Tusser,  example  of  middle  rhyme,  220 ; 
sectional  rhyme,  225. 

JTmbreUa,  69. 

Unity  of  sentence,  118-125  ;  not  incom- 
patible with  numerous  details,  118; 
injured  by  change  of  subject,  119 ;  by 
crowding  together  things  uncon- 
nected, 120;  by  relative  clauses,  121: 
by  parenthesis,  121 ;  by  supplement- 
ary clauses,  122;  unity  of  an  epic 
poem,  252. 

Unless  and  except,  76. 

Use  as  the  law  of  language,  72, 73 ;  Camp- 
bell's essay  on  the  subject,  84-86 ; 
reputable  use,  84;  national,  85;  pre- 
sent, 85. 

Vacation,  How  I  Spent  it,  several  com- 
positions on  the  subject,  313. 

Variety  of  figures  an  element  of  beauty, 
197, 

Vastness,  an  element  of  the  sublime, 
188;  vastness  in  a  horizontal  direc- 
tion less  sublime  than  the  same  ex- 
tent   upwards   or  downwai-ds,   189; 


INDEX, 


379 


the  firmament  an  example  of  vast- 
ness,  189. 

Vedas,  the  ancient  sacred  book  of  the 
Hindoos,  341. 

Verb,  ellipsis  of,  requires  comma,  31. 

Vernacular,  70. 

Versification,  209-248 ;  foundation  of 
■verse,  209 ;  the  state  of  the  question, 
209 ;  verse  pleasing  even  in  an  un- 
known language,  210;  accent  the 
paramount  law  of  English  verse,  212; 
rhythm,  what  it  is,  213 ;  general  di- 
vision of  the  subject,  214;  rhythm, 
214-220;  rhyme,  220-225;  blank  verse, 
225 ;  mixed  verse,  226-228 ;  stanzas, 
229-235  ;  modern  verse  accentual,  not 
syllabic,  235,  236;  elision,  237,  238; 
definition  of  verse  and  of  versification, 
214 ;  alliterative  verse,  222  ;  present 
state  of  English  verse,  236  ;  mistake 
of  Pope  and  Dryden  in  regard  to 
verse,  236  ;  requirements  of  modern 
verse  in  regard  to  elision,  237. 

Very,  frequent  use  of,  to  be  avoided, 
127. 

Virgil,  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  194; 
the  first  line  in  Tirgil,  transposed  into 
prose,  loses  its  pleasing  effect  upon 
the  ear,  210;  effect  of  dactyls  illus- 
trated, 227;  the  ^neid  one  of  the 
three  great  epics  of  the  world,  251 ; 
Georgics  an  example  of  didactic  po- 
etry, 260. 

Vivid  conception  of  strong  points  ne- 
cessary to  sublime  writing,  192. 

Vocnbttlanj,  how  enlarged,  57. 

Vocal  delivery/,  subject  omitted,  13 ; 
vocal  impulse  a  necessary  element  in 
pronunciation,  811. 

Vocative  case  requires  comma,  30. 

Volcanoes,  sublime,  189. 

Vulcan  and  Cyclops,  189. 


Wallet^,  example  of  metaphor,  174. 
Wan,  how  differing  from  pale  and  pallid, 

80. 
War-horse,  a  sublime  object,  190. 
Water,  outline  for  composition  on  it, 

297. 
Watts,  a  hymn-writer,  257. 
Webster,  Daniel,  example  of  senatorial 

eloquence,  250. 
Webster's    Quarto    Dictionary,    useful 

in  studying  synonyms,  80. 


Weight,  how  differing  from  heaviness, 
80. 

Welsh  languages,  351,  352, 

Wesley,  a  hymn  writer,  257. 

Whately,  remark  about  the  use  of  ital- 
ics, 115 ;  on  the  necessity  of  poetry's 
being  in  verse,  249. 

Whipple,  as  an  essayist,  279. 

White,  Richard  Grant,  on  Words  and 
their  Uses,  338. 

Whitney,  Prof.  M.  D.,  on  the  Science  of 
Language,  338. 

WJiittier,  instance  of  euphony,  236 ;  me- 
taphor, 179;  Barbara  Frietchie,  a 
specimen  of  mixed  verse,  228. 

WJiole,  distinguished  from  entire,  to- 
tal, complete,  80. 

Widotvs,  their  signatures,  267. 

Willis,  simile,  182. 

Wilson,  John,  author  of  Treatise  on 
Punctuation,  17. 

Wit  and  humor,  how  different  from 
sublimity  and  beauty,  201 ;  wit,  201- 
206 ;  ingredients  of  wit,  201 ;  exam- 
ples, 202;  definition  of  wit,  202;  il- 
lusti-ations,  203;  pun  a  species  of 
wit,  204;  some  celebrated  puns,  '20i; 
Shakspeare's  punning  sonnets,  205; 
habit  of  pnnning,  205  ;  habit  of  being 
witty,  205;  its  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages, 206. 

With,  distinguished  from  by,  81. 

Wards,  command  of,  important,  67 ;  for- 
eign, 68  ;  foreign  w.  domesticated,  69 ; 
obsolete,  69  ;  new,  09 ;  suspended  ani- 
mation of  words,  70;  law  of  verbal 
formation,  70,  71 ;  safe  plan  in  regard 
to  new  words,  71 ;  Pope's  rule  in  regard 
to  new  words,  71 ;  words  without  pro- 
per authority,  71 ;  Horace's  dictum 
in  regard  to  words,  72;  Campbell's 
positions  in  regard  to  use  as  the  law 
of  language,  72;  abstract  of  Camp- 
bell's essay  on  the  subject,  84-86; 
propriety  of  diction,  74 ;  means  of 
acquiring  a  proper  use  of  words,  75; 
meaning  of  words  changed,  75;  words 
used  improperly,  examples  of,  75,  76 ; 
words  not  used  precisely,  79;  preci- 
sion, how  obtained,  79;  principal 
words  in  the  sentence  not  to  be  en- 
tangled, 115;  redundancy,  125,  126; 
words  having  a  harmonious  sound, 
134;  arrangement  of  words  in  refer- 
ence to  sound,  135, 136. 


380 


INDEX, 


Wordsworth,  fine  example  of  personifi- 
cation, 169. 

Wyatt,  Sir  Thomas,  introduced  the  sonnet 
into  England,  258. 

Young f  example  of  antithesis,  163;  me- 


taphor, 172, 173,  174, 180 ;  hyperbole, 

181 ;  Night  Thoughts,  260. 
Zend,  the  ancient  language  of  Persia, 

342;  Zend-Avesta,  342. 
ZoroasterSf  the  ancient  inhabitanti  of 

Persia. 


FOR 


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To  Teachers. 


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CHASE  AND  STUAET'S  CLASSICAL  SEEEES. 


THOMAS  CHASE,  A.M., 

PROFESSOR   OF   CLASSICAL  LITERATURE, 
HATSBFORO  COIXSGK,  PSNNA. 


EDITED  BY 

GEOEGE  STUAKT,  A.M., 

PROFESSOR  OF  THE  LATIN  LANGUAGE, 
CENTRAL  HIOH  SCHOOL,  PBILADA. 


AND 

E.  P.  CROWELL,  A.M., 

PROFESSOR  OF  LATIN  IN  AMHERST  COLLEGE. 
REFERENCES  TO 

HARKNESS'S  LATIN  GRAMMAR, 

ANDREWS  &  STODDARD'S  LATIN  GRAMMAR, 

BULLIONS  &  MORRIS'S  LATIN  GRAMMAR, 

GILDERSLEEVE'S  LATIN  GRAMMAR, 

ALLEN'S  MANUAL  LATIN  GRAMMAR, 

AND 

ALLEN  &  GREENOUGH'S  LATIN  GRAMMAR. 

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3 


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scholars. 


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based  upon  a  careful  and  painstak- 
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ard text-books  in  more  than 


mnt  l^ltousanil  %choo\§, 


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and  as  a  book  of  reference. 

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ANATOMY,  PHYSIOLOGY,  AND  HYGIENE.  A 

**'    Text-Book  for  Schools,  Academies,  Colleges,  and 
Families.     By  Joseph  C.  Martindale,  M.D.,  late 
Principal  of  the  Madison  Grammar  School,  Phila- 
delphia.    Price  by  mail,  postpaid,  ;^i.30. 
The  study  of  Physiology  and  the  Laws  of  Health  is  as  important 
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Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Hygiene  presents  the  following  claims 
to  the  consideration  of  teachers.     Technicalities  have  been  avoided, 
so  far  as  consistent  with  the  treatment  of  the  subject.     The  style  in 
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published. 

Descriptive  circular  sent  on  application. 

piRST  LESSONS  IN  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY. 

■'■  For  Beginners.  By  Joseph  C.  Martindale,  M.D., 
late  Principal  of  the  Madison  Grammar  School. 
Price  by  mail,  postpaid,  60  cents. 

This  book  is  what  its  title  indicates,  "  First  Lessons  in  Natural 
Philosophy;"  and  it  presents  each  division  of  the  subject  in  such 
an  easy  and  familiar  style,  that  it  cannot  fail  to  interest  and  instruct 
any  child  of  ordinary  intelligence.  Beginning  as  it  does  in  a  simple 
and  easy  manner,  it  secures  the  interest  of  the  pupil  by  first  directing 
his  attention  to  objects  in  nature  with  which  he  is  familiar.  When 
the  interest  is  thus  excited,  the  subject  is  gradually  unfolded  by 
presenting,  one  after  another,  the  familiar  things  met  with  in  the 
every-day  walks  of  life ;  thus,  the  most  common  objects  are  made 
the  means  of  teaching  great  philosophical  truths.  Only  so  much 
of  the  subject  is  presented  as  can  be  taught  with  profit  in  our  public 
and  private  schools,  yet  what  has  been  given  will  be  found  to  em- 
brace all  the  more  common  phenomena  met  with  in  every-day  life. 
The  facts  are  so  clearly  and  so  plainly  set  forth,  that  they  are  en- 


9 

tirely  capable  of  comprehension  by  those  for  whose  use  and  benefit 
this  little  work  is  designed. 

Teachers  interested  in  the  "Object  Lesson"  system  of  teaching 
will  find  this  little  book  a  valuable  aid,  in  furnishing  subjects  for 
discussion. 

Circular  containing  specimen  pages,  &c.,  sent  to  any  address  on 
application. 

AN  ELEMENTARY  ALGEBRA,  FOR  SCHOOLS 

■*^  AND  ACADEMIES.  By  Joseph  W.  Wilson, 
A.M.,  Professor  of  Mathematics  in  the  Philadel- 
phia Central  High  School.  Price  by  mail,  post- 
paid, ;^i.25. 

The  present  work  is  the  result  of  an  effort  to  produce  an  Ele- 
mentary Algebra  suited  to  the  wants  of  classes  commencing  the 
study.  It  has  been  prepared  by  one  who  for  years  has  felt  the  need 
of  just  such  a  book,  and  is  the  fruit  of  long  experience  in  the 
school-room. 

With  this  book  in  hand,  the  pupil  cannot  help  avoiding  the  diffi- 
culties which  invariably  present  themselves  at  the  very  threshold 
of  the  study  of  Algebra. 

It  has  been  the  aim  to  give  such  a  presentation  of  the  subject  as 
will  meet  the  wants  of  Common  Schools  and  Academies.  It  is  an 
elementary  work,  and  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  include  every- 
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treatment  of  the  subject  is  on  the  principle  of  "  step  by  step,"  so 
that  the  pupil  at  the  very  outset  is  inspired  with  a  degree  of  confi- 
dence which  induces  self-reliance;  rendering  unnecessary  a  con- 
stant application  to  the  teacher  for  help. 

The  book  is  commended  to  teachers  in  the  hope  that  it  will  satisfy 
a  need  which  the  author  has  himself  frequently  felt. 

Descriptive  circular  sent  on  application. 

A  KEY  TO  WILSON'S  ELEMENTARY  ALGE- 

BRA  foi"  the  use  of  Teachers  only.  By  Prof. 
Joseph  W.  Wilson,  A.  M.  Price  by  mail,  post- 
paid, $1.25. 


THE    CRITTENDEN    COMMERCIAL    ARITH- 
*    METIC  AND  BUSINESS  MANUAL.    Designed 

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Price  by  mail,  post-paid,  ;^i.5o. 

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and  having  so  direct  a  bearing  on  his  future  welfare,  will,  in  many 
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of  popular  opinion  in  its  favor,  and  prove  the  means  of  filling  it 
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Circulars  containing  full  descriptive  notice,  testimonials,  &c.,  will 
be  sent  to  any  address  on  application. 


A    MANUAL  OF  ELOCUTION.     Founded  upon  the 

"^    Philosophy  of  the  Human  Voice,  with    Classified 

Illustrations,  Suggested  by  and  Arranged  to  meet 

the  Practical  Difficulties  of  Instruction.     By  M.  S. 

Mitchell.     Price  by  mail,  post-paid,  ;^i.5o. 

SUBJECTS    TREATED    OF. 

Articulation,  Pronunciation,  Accent,  Emphasis,  Modulation, 
Melody  of  Speech,  Pitch,  Tone,  Inflections,  Sense,  Cadence,  Force, 
Stress,  Grammatical  and  Rhetorical  Pauses,  Movement,  Reading 
of  Poetry,  Action,  Attitude,  Analysis  of  the  Principles  of  Gestures, 
and  Oratory. 

The  compiler  cannot  conceal  the  hope  that  this  glimpse  of  our 
general  literature  may  tempt  to  individual  research  among  its  treas- 
ures, so  varied  and  inexhaustible;  —  that   this   text-book   for   the 


II 

school-room  may  become  not  only  teacher,  but  friend,  to  those  in 
whose  hands  it  is  placed,  and  while  aiding,  through  systematic  de- 
velopment and  training  of  the  elocutionary  powers  of  the  pupil,  to 
overcome  many  of  the  practical  difficulties  of  instruction,  may 
accomplish  a  higher  work  in  the  cultivation  and  refinement  of 
character. 

THE  MODEL  SPEAKER:  Consisting  of  Exercises 
■*•  in  Prose,  Poetry,  and  Blank  Verse,  Suitable  for 
Declamation,  Public  Readings,  School  Exhibitions, 
&c.  Compiled  for  the  Use  of  Schools,  Academies, 
Colleges,  and  Private  Classes,  by  Prof.  Philip 
Lawrence.     Price  by  mail,  post-paid,  ;^i.5o. 

The  book  is  printed  on  superfine,  tinted  paper,  and  handsomely 
and  durably  bound  in  fine  English  cloth,  with  bevelled  sides.  For 
variety  and  freshness  of  selections,  beauty  of  mechanical  execution, 
and  economy  in  price,  it  is  unequalled  by  any  similar  work  extant. 

Great  care  has  been  taken  to  consult  the  authorized  editions  of 
the  various  writers  represented,  that  the  extracts  from  their  works 
may  be  relied  upon  as  accurate ;  though,  in  some  instances,  pre- 
ference has  been  given  to  an  early  edition,  when,  in  later  issues, 
the  alterations  have  not  been  deemed  improvements.  Many  poems 
have  been  introduced  which  have  never  before  found  their  way  into 
any  book  of  selections,  being  now  for  the  first  time  published  in 
this  country  in  a  permanent  form. 

It  is  believed  that  this  book  will  be  found  admirably  adapted  for 
use  as  a  "  Reader,"  either  in  connection  with  any  of  the  regular 
series  of  reading  books,  or  to  be  taken  up  by  classes  that,  having 
used  the  higher  readers  of  the  different  series,  need  variety  as  an 
incentive  to  interest.  For  this  purpose  we  particularly  commend 
it  to  the  attention  of  Principals  of  Academies,  Seminaries,  High 
Schools,  Normal  Schools,  and  Institutions  for  Young  Ladies* 

Descriptive  Circular,  containing  entire  List  of  Contents,  sent  to 
any  address  on  application. 


12 

THE  MODEL  DEFINER.  An  Elementary  Book  for 
Beginners,  containing  Definitions,  Etymology,  and 
Sentences  as  Models,  exhibiting  the  correct  use  of 
Words.  By  A.  C.  Webb.  Price  by  mail,  post- 
paid, 25  cents. 

THE  MODEL  ETYMOLOGY.     Giving  not  only  the 
■^      Definitions,  Etymology,  and  Analysis,  but  also  that 
which  can  be  obtained  only  from  an  intimate  ac- 
quaintance with  the  best  authors,  viz. :  the  correct 
use  of  Words.     With  a  Key  containing  the  analysis 
of  every  word  which  could  present  any  difficulties 
to  the  learner.     By  A.  C.  Webb.     Price  by  mail, 
post-paid,  60  cents. 
The  plan  adopted  in  the  Model  Definer  and  Model  Etymology  is 
not  new.     All  good  Dictionaries  illustrate  the  meaning  by  a  Model. 
To  quote  from  a  good  author,  a  sentence  containing  the  word,  as 
proof  of  its  correct  use,  is  the  only  authority  allowed.     A  simple 
trial  of  the  work,  either  by  requiring  the  child  to  form  sentences 
similar  to  those  given,  or  by  memorizing  the  sentences  as  models 
for  future  use,  will  convince  any  one  of  the  following  advantages  to 
be  derived  from  the  Model  Word-Book  Series. 

1.  Saving  of  time. 

2.  Increased  knowledge  of  words. 

3.  Ease  to  teacher  and  scholar. 

4.  A  knowledge  of  the  correct  use  of  words. 

Descriptive  Circular  sent  on  application. 

MARTINDALE'S   HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED 

STATES.  From  the  Discovery  of  America  to  the 
close  of  the  late  Rebellion.  By  Joseph  C.  Mar- 
TiNDALE,  M.D.,  Principal  of  the  Madison  Grammar 
School,  Philadelphia.  Price  by  mail,  post-paid, 
60  cents. 


13  * 

With  this  book  in  his  hand,  the  scholar  can  in  a  single  school- 
term  obtain  as  complete  a  kno,wledge  of  the  History  of  the  United 
States  as  has  heretofore  required  double  the  time  and  effort. 

Descriptive  circular  sent  on  applic3^M[. 
— <>oj»io« 

THE   YOUNG   STUDENT'S   COMPANION;    or/ 

Elementary  Lessons  and  Exercises  in  Translating 
from  English  into  French.  By  M.  A.  Longstreth, 
Principal  of  a  Seminary  for  Young  Ladies,  Phila- 
delphia.    Price  by  mail,  postpaid,  ^i.oo. 

TABLES  OF  LATIN  SUFFIXES.     Designed  as  an 
"■•     Aid  to  the  Study  of  the  Latin  Grammar.    By  Amos 
N.  Currier,  A.M.,  Professor  of  Latin  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Iowa.    Price  by  mail,  postpaid,  50  cents. 

A    FRENCH  VERB  BOOK;  or,  the  New  Expositor 

**    of  Verbs  in  French.     By  Ernest  Lagarde,  A.M., 

Professor  of  Modern  Languages  in  Mount  St.  Mary's 

College.     Price  by  mail,  postpaid,  ;^i.oo. 

Lagarde's  French  Verb  Book  embraces  a  comprehensive  analysis 

of  the  conjugations,  a  new  method  for  the  formation  and  use  of  the 

tenses,  and  a  complete  paradigm  of  all  the  verbs,  the  whole  gpc- 

plained  and  exemplified  by  full  illustrations.     It  is  believed  that 

the  book  will  be  found  a  valuable  aid  to  the  study  of  the  French 

language. 

rOMPENDIUM  OF  FRENCH  RULES.    A  Com- 

^  pendium  of  the  Grammatical  Rules  of  the  French 
Language.  By  F.  A.  Bregy,  A.M.,  Professor  of 
French  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

IN  THREE  PARTS. 

PART  FIRST.     Price  by  mail,  postpaid,  75  cents. 
PART  SECOND.  «  «  50      " 

PART  THIRD.     In  Preparation. 


14 

These  hand-books  can  be  advantageously  used  in  connection  with 
any  system.  They  lead  the  student  from  the  first  elements  of  the 
language  to  and  through  the  principal  rules  of  the  French  Syntax, 
enabling  him,  in  a  short  time,  to  master  intelligently  what  otherwise 
would  prove  a  tedious, and  difficult  task. 


CELECTIONS  FOR  LITTLE  FOLKS.    A  Book  of 

^  Poetical  Selections  for  Children.  Price  by  mail, 
postpaid,  50  cents. 

That  sympathy  which  loves  to  link  the  present  with  the  past,  has 
prompted  the  preparation  of  this  volume.  Simply  to  make  a  child 
glad,  is  a  worthy  motive  for  storing  its  mind  with  poetic  utterances, 
especially  when  the  remembrance  of  such  happiness  becomes  a 
well-spring  of  delight  for  a  lifetime. 

This  little  book  is  intended  for  children  not  more  than  nine  or 
ten  years  of  age,  and  the  compiler  would  feel  it  a  good  excuse  for 
adding  another  book  to  those  already  extant,  should  the  little  ones 
find  pleasure  in  it. 

IN   THE   SCHOOL-ROOM  ;   or,  Chapters   in  the 

*      Philosophy  of  Education.     By  John  S.  Hart, 

LL.D.,    Principal    of    New   Jersey   State   Normal 

School.     Price  by  mail,  postpaid,  ^1.25. 

This  work  gives  the  results  of  the  experience  and  observation 

of  the  author  "in  the  School-room  "  for  a  period  of  years  extending 

over  more  than  one-third  of  a  century. 

No  teacher  can  afford  to  be  without  it. 
It  is  a  teacher's  library  in  a  single  book. 
Descriptive  circular  sent  on  application. 

THE  MODEL  ROLL-BOOK,  No.  1.    For  the  Use 

•'•  of  Schools.  Containing  a  Record  of  Attendance, 
Punctuality,  Deportment,  Orthography,  Reading, 
Penmanship,  Intellectual  Arithmetic,  Practical  Arith- 
metic, Geography,  Grammar,  Analysis,  Parsing  and 
History,  and  several  blanks  for  special  studies  not 
enumerated.     Price  by  mail,  postpaid,  115.00. 


IS 

THE  MODEL  ROLL-BOOK,  No.  2.    For  the  use 

■*■      of  High  Schools,  Academies  and  Seminaries.    Con- 
taining a  Record  of  all  the  studies  mentioned  in 
Roll-Book  No.  I,  together  with  Declamation,  Elo- 
cution, Algebra,  Geometry,  Composition,  Rhetoric, 
French,  Latin,  Philosophy,  Physiology,  and  several 
blanks  for  special  studies  not  enumerated.     Price 
by  mail,  post-paid,  ^5.00. 
Since  the  fii*st  publication  of  the  Model  Roll-Books,  they  have 
been  very  materially  improved.     They  have  been  made  uniform  in 
size  and  price ;  each  page  has  been  arranged  to  exhibit  a  record  for 
one  month,  and  space  has  been  assigned  for  a  monthly  summary. 
These  Roll-Books  are  in  use  in  the  leading  schools  in  Boston,  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  Cincinnati,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis, 
and  very  extensively  in  Academies,  Seminaries,  and  High  Schools 
throughout  the  Country.     They  will,  on  examination,  be  found  to  be 
the  most  complete  and  practical  yet  published.     All  teachers  who 
use  them  speak  of  them  with  unqualified  approval. 

THE  MODEL  POCKET  REGISTER  AND  GRADE- 

BOOK.  A  Roll-Book,  Record,  and  Grade-Book 
combined.  Adapted  to  all  grades  of  classes,  whether 
in  College,  Academy,  Seminary,  High  or  Primary 
School.  Handsomely  bound  in  fine  English  cloth, 
bevelled  sides,  crimson  edges.  Price  by  mail,  post- 
paid, 65  cents. 

THE  MODEL  SCHOOL  DIARY.  Designed  as  an 
■*■  aid  in  securing  the  co-operation  of  parents.  It  con- 
sists of  a  Record  of  the  Attendance,  Deportment, 
Recitations,  &c.,  of  the  Scholar,  for  every  day  in 
the  week.  At  the  close  of  the  week  it  is  to  be  sent 
to  the  parent  or  guardian  for  his  examination  and 
signature.  Copies  will  be  mailed  to  teachers  for 
examination,  post-paid,  on  receipt  of  ten  cents. 
Price  per  dozen,  by  mail,  post-paid,  ^1.05. 


T"! 


i6 

MODEL  MONTHLY  REPORT.  The  general 
character  of  the  Monthly  Report  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  Model  School  Diary,  excepting  that  it  is  in- 
tended for  a  Monthly  instead  of  a  Weekly  Report  of 
the  Attendance,  Recitations,  &c.,  of  the  Pupil. 
Copies  will  be  mailed  to  teachers  for  examination, 
postpaid,  on  receipt  of  ten  cents.  Price  per  dozen, 
by  mail,  postpaid,  $1.05. 

DOOK- KEEPING  BLANKS.  Consisting  of  six 
'^  blank  books,  as  follows:  Day  Book,  Cash  Book, 
Ledger,  Journal,  Bill  Book,  and  Book  for  Miscel- 
laneous Exercises.  Price  for  each  book  by  mail, 
postpaid,  15  cents;  or  the  entire  set  of  six  books  by 
mail,  postpaid,  90  cents. 

These  books  have  been  prepared  as  a  matter  of  practical  con- 
venience for  students  in  Book-keeping.  They  can  be  used  with  any 
treatise,  and  vi^ill  be  sold  singly  or  in  sets,  as  may  be  desired. 


Teachers  corresponding  with  us  are  requested  to  supply  us  with 
a  copy  of  the  circular  or  catalogue  of  the  school  of  which  they  are 
the  Principal,  or  with  which  they  are  connected. 

Descriptive  circulars  of  all  our  publications  will  be  sent  to  any 
address  on  application. 

Please  address, 

ELDREDGE  &  BROTHER, 

No.  17  North  Seventh  Street, 

PHILADELPHIA. 


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